BISMILLAH IR RAHMAN IR RAHEEM

www.Allah.com
This document has been compiled to assist Muslim cattle raisers in the fellowship of the Prophets Muhammad and Moses, peace be upon them, with a Zakah Chart (the obligatory charity) which is due at the appropriate time. If you do not pay the Zakah, Sayidina Abu Bakr will fight you in this life and in your tomb as he fought those who refused to pay Zakah during his caliphate.

BUYING, RAISING, CARE,
 AND HEALTH OF CATTLE
For Weights and Measures Conversion Chart see end of the book

Raising cattle can be a rewarding experience, Al Hamdulillah, and a lot can be learned from observation.

The information contained in this brief booklet draws the attention of prospective cattle raisers to some of the situations which they may have to deal with.

After having read this booklet, you may incline to think raising cattle is too difficult for you on account of the many diseases that may affect your herd. However, one must remember that just as in a human health care book there are also numerous diseases, very few affect a person. The information is to make you aware just in case you need to know how to deal with a specific illness. Abortion is not unknown however, it is reassuring to know that only approximately 1 out of every 200 cows will abort. Raising cattle has many benefits not just financial but also the satisfaction of seeing the hand of Allah in yet another aspect of His wondrous creation. Al Hamdulillah!

We advise you to read this booklet in its entirety to get a better understanding on how to raise cattle rather than relying on the Index Quick Reference alone.


The information in this booklet is believed to be true and complete to the best of our knowledge, however you may also experience situations etc. not covered in this booklet as it is presented as a general guide. All recommendations are made without guarantee on the part of the compiler and Allah.com or Muhammad.com. Both the compiler and publisher disclaim any liability in connection with the use of this information. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 – Buying Cattle, page 2
Chapter 2 – Behavior and Guidelines, page 4
Chapter 3 – Pastures, Fencing, Housing, Where to Raise, page 7
Chapter 4 – Health of Cattle, page 14
Chapter 5 – Growing and Breeding Heifers, page 32
Chapter 6 – Care of Pregnant Cows, page 37
Chapter 7 – Calving, page 40
Chapter 8 – Care of the newborn Calf, page 57
Chapter 9 – Calf Health, page 64
Chapter 10 – The Importance of when you Wean, page 82
Chapter 11 -  Rebreeding, page 87
CHAPTER 1 BUYING CATTLE

Crossbred cows are more fertile. 
They are hardier and have a higher survival rate.
They gain weight faster, grow bigger and adapt to harsher environments.
Crossbred calves are usually 20% heavier than pure bred.
If your target is for milk rather than meat, pure bred cows such as Holstein cows are best. 

If you want cattle that produce fast-growing calves, you need cows that milk well. Bulls whose mothers milked well produce daughters that are better than average in milk production, weaning bigger calves.

Defects can be inherited and include:
Extra toes. Double muscling, recessive trait received from both parents in which the muscles have extra fibers, giving an extremely muscled appearance. Two toes joined together. Hairlessness, this can also be caused by disease. Dwarfism, which is a recessive trait in which the skeleton is small and the forehead bulges.
 
Many defective traits are the result of inbreeding.

Udders:
If beef cattle are the target, start with cows that have good udders, that is, well developed and nicely shaped, but not too large. Udder size is not what determines milking ability. A large pendulous udder is easily injured and can lead to mastitis. It is also harder for a newborn calf to nurse.

Bulls:
Buy calm bulls, not bossy or aggressive. 
Bulls have been known to kill their herdsman.
Gain trust – never let it lose respect for your dominance.
Do not make a pet out of a steer (young bull).

Calves:
Avoid buying calves with runny nose, cough, runny eyes, droopy ears, or dull attitude. If a calf is sick when you bring it home, it will become more sick on account of being taken from one place to another because they have been separated from familiar surroundings etc. and you run the risk of it dieing.

If you buy a calf that has not been weaned and never been away from its mother, expect problems when you get it home. It will try to get back to her, most likely won't eat and pace up and down and bawl. It is a stressful time and it will be most prone to illness especially in cold weather. If the weather is dry or dusty the dust can irritate his lungs and subject him to pneumonia.

A newly weaned calf has a problem it will still search for its mother and try to escape through a hole in a fence. The calf should not be put out to pasture until it gets over this period and feels secure. If you are buying two calves it is much easier to deal with than one.

Calves must have been weaned for at least three weeks before being vaccinated. 

Heifers:
Selecting a good heifer (a young female) for breeding purposes is different from selecting a steer to fatten for beef.

The biggest, fattest heifer doesn't always make the best cow.

If there is too much fat in the young developing udder it will hinder the heifer's milk production later on. Her calves will not grow as well as those born to a medium sized heifer.

The best cows are slim having an angular body – that is not covered with bulging muscle like a bull – fairly long narrow head and neck and a well developed udder.

The beef cow doesn't have to have these traits because she does not have to produce that much milk. She should be more muscular and not have such a big udder. 

A heifer should have feet and legs set at correct angles, a straight back – not swaybacked or arched up. It should have a hip sloping down rather than up at the tail. A high tail with pelvis tipped up can cause calving problems as she gets older. A downward sloping hip is better.

Steers:
Choose a steer in preference to a bull.

A steer is a male calf that has been castrated, that is he has had his testicles removed.

Calves are castrated when young at time of weaning.

A bull can provide good meat however it is more difficult to handle than a steer and is more likely to break fences to find cows.


Yearlings:
You can make a good profit by keeping calves over winter and then selling them as yearlings. When you buy them the price per pound is lower, but they weigh so much more as yearlings that compensate for the extra feed you provide for them during the winter unless the price of feed is high that year.

Cull Cows:
Cull cows are those that have become to old to raise a good calf or no longer get pregnant – sell her especially if winter is approaching when you will need to provide her with more fodder, get her dewormed, and vaccinated. 

Cows to be culled are 10 – 12 years old, however, some are still highly productive in their late teens! If you decide to keep them, then in the autumn when they are due for vaccination get them checked to see if they are pregnant.

Be aware of the tricks of the trade:
The weight of the cattle depends on the time of the day – how much it has eaten or exercised and how far it has traveled. This is due to the size of the rumen - which is the largest stomach compartment  - and the volume of water mixed with the feed in it. Cattle carry a large percentage of their weight as food and water in the gut. Loss of weight – which is termed as shrink – shrink loss can be up to 10% - 18% of the weight. Cattle buyers walk among the cattle to stir them around supposedly to get a closer look at them, so they are moved around a lot. This makes them lose weight before being weighed. CATTLE ARE EMOTIONAL DUE TO STRESS. If possible get the cattle in a corral, which is a fenced area where an animal can be confined overnight without them being fed before weighing. Calves weaned and shipped will loose weight due to shrink more than those that are used to hay. OTHER STRESS FACTORS THAT CAUSE LOSS OF WEIGHT ARE WEATHER CONDITIONS.

Another fact to draw to your attention is that if your choice is that of a purebred animal you must be aware that many purebred breeders feed grain to make their calves grow fast and look good at sales. Purebreds fetch a higher price, they are sold individually by the head, not by the pound, so purebred breeders can afford to use grain or buy extra feed to make their cattle larger and fatter more quickly. THIS IS AN ARTIFICIAL SITUATION. A grain fed bull or young heifer looks good to buyers but this is not a true indication of how the animal would do on your natural feeds like grass and hay. A nice looking fat heifer you bring home from the purebred sale may not do so well on your pasture and lose weight, or not breed on schedule without reverting to the pampering she used to have by her former owners. When she calves there is the possibility that her calf may not grow as well as she did unless you pamper it and feed it grain!

BUYING PREGNANT HEIFERS OR COWS

Pregnant cows or heifers cost more but will give you a payback on your money.

Find out as much as you can about the bull that sired the mother-to-be cow/heifer.

You want heifers that were bred to a bull that sires good calves, but also small, easily born calves. You need to know what time of year they to expect calving. Calves born in the winter need to be born in barns if it is cold or else you may loose it.

You should get a guarantee from the seller that the cow/heifer is pregnant done by a veterinarian (vet). Also get veterinarian to check its age. If seller does not know when the calf is due, get the vet to give you an approximate date.

It is best to start with heifers or young cows, but sometimes you can get a good buy on older cows that are still sound – get a veterinarian to check. If you can get several calves from them they will pay for themselves. Older cows are already proven producers, they will calve more easily and you know they will look after their calves.

General:
Smaller animal normally cost more per kilo than larger ones.

Buy a calm animal because its meat will be more tender, better color and put on weight quicker. When it comes to slaughtering if the animal is of a nervous nature it releases hormones that can make the meat dark and tougher. This was taught to us by Prophet Muhammad, praise and peace be upon him, when he told his Companions not to let the animal see the knife as it is about to be slaughtered.

BRINGING THEM HOME
Most calves have lived with their mothers in pastures. They may have been relaxed and calm in their familiar place. When you unload them they will be scared and upset. They may even knock you in their haste to get away especially if you corner them or are in the way when they come out of the truck.

CHAPTER 2 – BEHAVIOR AND GUIDELINES
Cows are smart! How a calf is handled when it is young affects it attitude.

Cowboy should be gentle, calm and not get excited.

Cows do not forget a bad experience.

Cows submit to a hierarchy cow/bull as it were the "boss cow".

Once cows know and respect you they will submit and you become the "boss cow" to them. For example going through a gate when you insist, rather than running off or knocking you down.

The bossiest, most aggressive cow of the herd is called "top cow" she gets first choice or water and feed.

Trouble can occur when a lower ranking cow fights seeking a better "social position". Top cows rarely have to defend their position.

Understand their social order to make things run smoothly. 

Spread feed out so that lower ranking cows find space to eat/drink/locate salt. If you put it in a corner the dominant cattle keep the lower ranking ones out.

If they are nervous speak softly to them

Cows have a sense of smell that tells them about their surroundings and each other. Do not wash the coat you usually wear when you are with the cows.

Smell is more important to a cow than sight or sound. 

Cows have two smelling glands one in the nose and the other in the roof of its mouth. Cows can smell by raising their heads, open mouths with tongues flat, with upper lips curled back.

Cows know their calf and vice versa by their smell and sound.

Cows check by smell before nursing their calf.

Cows smell each other before deciding to fight, a "lesser cow" will back off timidly.

Bulls use smell to check if a cow is ready for mating, it can tell whether she is coming into the mating period, ready to mate, or the time has passed.

Cows/bulls release chemical attractants that display, nervousness, relaxation, anger and so on.


WHY WONT MY COW EAT?
ONE OF THE REASONS
Smell helps cattle to determine what to eat. THEY ARE FUSSY EATERS and rely on their noses. They do not like wet hay or grain and often refuse feed that looks OK to a human, just because it smells different.

A cow that has never had grain may refuse to eat it.

Weather hot or cold affects cattle and can cause them to loose weight.
In hot weather they spend more time in the shade rather than grazing then graze at night. If the weather is very cold they most likely will need supplements. They may need hay in cold weather.

Grazing:
Cattle need to graze in groups especially yearlings.

Cattle become uneasy and restless if separated from the main herd, but need their own space.
 
Do not put them in a small area, they become restless and do more walking than grazing.

Cattle prefer tender new growth and will leave older plants. Coarse plants are not eaten at all unless there isn't much feed left in the pasture.

Cattle need clean pastures.

Cattle will not graze near manure.
In pastures with manure larva hatch from worm eggs and get into surrounding plants and this infests the cattle. However, cattle will eat around manure of other species such as sheep, horses whose parasite can't live in cattle.

SUMMER CARE OF YEARLINGS
Pastures start to grow in the spring and cattle are eager for fresh green grass. If you have a lot of pasture the grasses will grow faster than yearlings can eat it, and they can stay on the pasture if that is where they spent the winter. If you have limited pasture, lock them up until the grass can flourish before you turn them out for summer grazing.

Some plants become coarse as they mature and calves do not eat them, the same applies to weeds. Improve your pasture by mowing or clipping such areas then the plants/weeds do not have chance to mature, go to seed or spread.

GRAIN FED VERSES GRASS FED
Whether you let yearlings fatten on good pasture or grain depends on what age you want them to be butchered. Cattle grow well on pasture alone and can become quite fat on good grass. But they will grow faster and reach butchering condition more quickly if fed grain. 

WATER 
Make sure the cattle have water at all times.
In cool weather a 500 pound calf needs 2-6 gallons a day.
750 pound steer needs 10 -15 gallons per day,
1000 pound steer needs more than 20 gallons per day.
Hot weather causes loss of water from the body through evaporation and breathing, and they must drink even more to make up for this loss.

If a water trough has manure in it the cattle will refuse to drink from it.

Water troughs must be emptied, rinsed out periodically.

A lactating cow, that is one producing milk, needs more water.

Calves have the habit of stepping into water troughs so check the troughs.



FEED IN THE WEEKS BEFORE BUTCHERING
Generally, the younger the animal the more tender the meat, so if the animal is finished quickly on grain it will be very tender. The younger the animal the less flavorful meat. Veal is meat from very young calves – only a few weeks old, they are fed milk or milk replacers.

FEEDS BEFORE FINISHING/BUTCHERING
There are many kinds of feed that can be used to prepare a beef animal before butchering, i.e. Field corn, beet bulk, water materials from food processing industry such as potato skins, citrus pulp etc. 

Grains include corn, milo (grain sorghum), oats, barley and wheat. If barley is plentiful, it can be used instead of milo or corn. Wheat is often too high priced. Corn is high in energy and commonly used. Oats make good food as do molasses, dried beet pulp. Grains that have been steam rolled are easier to digest than whole grains, and more of the food value is usable by the animal.

If you are finishing the beef animal on grain rather than grass, keep it in a smaller area and feed it a balanced mix of hay and grain. When concentrates such as grains make up most of the ration and forage/roughage, (feeds that are high in fiber and low in energy, for example hay and pasture) is just a small portion, calves gain weight quickly. 

For fast gain, feed a small amount of hay 4 -5 lbs per day of good quality hay. And up to 2% of its body weight as grain. For a 700 pound calf that is a maximum of 14 pounds of grain daily. If you feed this much grain, split it in two portions morning and evening.

Start calves on grain gradually until they learn how to eat it and increase amount slowly. The microbes in the calf's rumen (the largest stomach compartment, where roughage is digested with the aid of microorganisms in a fermentation process) that break down feeds have to adjust to new food. Too much grain can upset digestion. The same can be said about rich alfalfa hay. Important: once you start calves on grain do not skip a feeding they may over eat at the next feeding and get indigestion and bloat (which is a full, tight rumen caused by accumulate of gas). Never feed more grain than calves can eat in 30 minutes.

Even when on heavy grain diet, roughage is still important. Cattle need fibrous food to keep digestion working properly. Giving cattle too much grain and not enough roughage can cause serious problems such as bloating and acidosis which is a build up of acids and causes severe digestive upset.

Unless you are short of pasture the easiest and cheapest way to raise beef cattle is to let the calves harvest the grass and not worry about feeding grain. If you don't have the time to feed grain properly, it is simpler just to grow beef cattle on pasture.

FEEDING ORPHANED CALVES
If you teach it to drink milk from a bucket much of the nutritional value is lost because it goes into the rumen. 

Feed with a nursing bottle, the suckling reflex creates the direct pipeline into the true stomach.
 
CALVES ARE CURIOUS
Cattle, especially calves are curious and often get into trouble.

They will chew anything plastic and this may plug the digestive track and be the cause of death. String will also cause a serious problem.

Be on the look out for dumped waste i.e. car batteries which can poison them even if they are just licked. 

Make sure there is nothing to injure their feet.
 
CHAPTER - 3  PASTURES, FENCING, HOUSING WHERE TO RAISE 

Cattle can be raised with no pasture by feeding them hay and grain or other harvested feed or entirely on forages/roughage they harvest themselves when grazing.

Even if you only have room for a corral, you can raise beef and grow your own meat.

If your pasture is too small for the whole grazing season you will need a pen or corral to confine the cattle part of the time so as to allow the pasture to grow or regrow after having been grazed.

Cattle can be fed on hay while confined.

A corral is necessary at other time as when you have to catch them for vaccinating, doctoring or other management procedures.

PASTURES WHAT SIZE AND WHAT TYPE
The size of pasture depends on available space, the effects of climate and rainfall, soil, plant types, quality and number of cattle and season of the year.

Early spring growth from half-acre of good forage/roughage will feed a young heifer, steer or dry cow – a dry cow is one that does not produce milk. A lactating cow needs more feed. 

By July and August the summer growth slows down and it may take 50% more pasture to feed the same animals.

If your pasture is limited then confine the animals and feed them on hay for the rest of the time.

If your pasture is large enough for the animals for most of the grazing season, divide the area into several pastures to enable regrowth, or to keep cows with their calves separate from yearlings, and likewise yearling steer separate from young heifers.

Lush green pastures, i.e. those that are irrigated, naturally fertile and moist can support more animals per acre than bunch grasses found in dry climates.

Native bunch grasses in dry climates are very nutritious but it takes more land to feed the cattle because of their slow growth grasses – why – because there is more space between the plants and plant health is endangered if the same plants are grazed repeatedly during the growing season.

A mix of grass and legumes is desirable – legumes are clover and alfalfa – because they provide more protein and add nitrogen to the soil. Pastures mainly comprised of grasses need supplemental nitrogen to be highly productive, this can be attained by spreading animal manure in the spring or using a commercial fertilizer.

Hay if properly grown, cut at the right time - which is when the plants still have high nutrient content before it matures and dries and produces seed-heads – properly cured, and well stored to prevent weather damage can be an excellent feed as it supplies all the necessary nutrients. Legume hay has more protein than grass hay. Good grass hay cut while green and growing can have a higher protein content than legume hay cut late. 

HAY – DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN                    % Digestible Protein
Alfalfa (before blooming)                                         16.0
Red clover (before blooming)                                   9.2
Timothy (before blooming)                                        6.0
Timothy (mature)                                                       2.4
Kentucky bluegrass                                                   4.7
Mixed legume and grass                                           7.2

Grass hay can be lower is phosphorus and is always lower in calcium than alfalfa.

If you are growing your own hay for maximum production then you should know that plants need adequate nutrients – this means fertilizer either commercial or natural. Cattle manure makes the best fertilizer.

Hay must be properly dried before bailed and stored. IF IT IS BAILED TOO GREEN THEN IT WILL MOLD AND THERE IS A POSSIBILITY OF FERMENT, HEATING AND STARTING A FIRE.

Hay must be properly dried out before bailed and stored.

GRASS VERSUS ALFALFA
Alfalfa – green or fed as hay – is good feed for calves or young cattle, lactating cows and pregnant cows in late gestation (gestation is the length of pregnancy which is about 285 days for cows). But they do no need straight alfalfa because they do not require that much protein and rich alfalfa with no grass or other forage to dilute it can cause digestive problems, diarrhea, and bloat. A mix of grass and alfalfa is usually safer and healthier than straight alfalfa. ON ALFALFA PASTURES, FEED A BLOAT PREVENTATIVE TO KEEP FROM LOSING CATTLE.

DO NOT FEED DAIRY QUALITY ALFALFA HAY TO BEEF CATTLE. It is much richer than they need and the risk of bloating is great. For beef animals, feed first-cutting alfalfa if it is only a roughage source because it contains some grass and can be an ideal ration. Second or third cutting is just alfalfa, it grows back faster than grass. It has more protein than is needed and should not be fed by itself.

To avoid bloat, feed alfalfa with a high fiber feed, do not let alfalfa leaves built up in a feed bunk, allow plenty of space for all animals to eat at once, and never let hungry animals eat leafy alfalfa or they will load up the rumen too quickly. Be cautious using wet alfalfa pastures or feeding wet alfalfa hay. Lush alfalfa – especially if just a few inches high is very palatable and tender and can quickly cause bloat.

Make sure alfalfa hay is not moldy or dusty. SOME MOLDS CAN CAUSE RESPIRTORY PROBLEMS OR ABORTION IN PREGNANT COWS. 

Cattle will not eat well if the stems are coarse because they are hard to chew.

HARMFUL PLANTS

öAlso see the section of poisoning: toxic plants

Several plants are poisonous. Check with the vet to see which plants are liable to grow in your area. Common poisonous plants are those such as hemlock and larkspur and may grow in wet areas along a ditch or stream.

Poison and water hemlock are not only poisonous to cattle but also to humans – do not try to pick hemlock (hemlock has a white flower)!

Burdock and cockleburr are not poisonous, however, they produce burrs than can cause serious eye problems in cattle.

TIME OF GRAZING
Do not put cattle on pastures too early in the spring before they have had a chance to grow, this is because new growth requires energy reserves in the roots. If you have bought cattle in the spring then keep them in the corral until the pasture is established.

Divide the pasture into sections. Graze each section for only 7 to 10 days and then allow to regrow for 25 – 30 days, irrigate it according to lack of rainfall.

If you intend to use the same pasture the following year make sure you do not let it become over grazed that is, before the plants are grazed too short.

FORAGE/ROUGHAGE FOR CATTLE 
In areas where rainfall is low consider using the following on account of their tolerance of heat and drought, when in doubt ask your veterinarian:
Switchgrass
Bluestems
Indiangrass
Sideoats grama
Buffalo grass. 

NUTRITION
There are 5 groups of nutrients needed for life and growth:
Energy,
Protein
Vitamins
Minerals
Water.

Energy: these nutrients are carbohydrates. Sugars and starches are simple carbohydrates and east to digest. They are found in grain feeds such as corn, oats, barley etc. Cellulose which is one of the main types of fiber in plants is a complex carbohydrate. Hay and grass contain a lot of cellulose but because it is more difficult to digest than starches or sugar it has lower energy value. However, because cows can digest large amounts of cellulose in the rumen it can provide adequate energy for beef animals.

Important Note:
Energy is the most important part of the diet. Protein, vitamins and mineral are wasted unless energy requirement are met first. Forage is always the most economical source of energy.

To do well, and have good conception rate cows need energy. However the mistake is often made that this entails feeding grain which is inefficient and also expensive. If a cow is deficient in energy on poor forages, DO NOT FEED MORE ENERGY AS CONCENTRATES, RATHER MAKE SURE HER PROTIEN SUPPLY IS ADEQUATE. A cow can produce all the energy she needs from very poor forages, BUT she must have enough protein to feed the microbes in the rumen to do it. Microbes in the rumen thrive in a fluid environment and break down, digest and create by-products from the feed. When grain is added to the diet it increases acidity and this limits the bacteria and protozoa that digest cellulose. When a cow is fed grain regularly, cellulose digesting microbes are replaced with starch-users that thrive in the acid environment.

IT DOES NOT WORK TO FEED A HALF GRAIN/HALF FORAGE RATION TO FATTEN A STEER, OR TO SUPPLEMENT WANING PASTURE WITH A LOT OF GRAIN OR HIGH ENERGY (GRAIN) CUBES OR BLOCKS. THIS IS BECAUSE IF THE CATTLE ARE FED BOTH FIBER AND STARCH INTERMITTENTLY THE MICROBE POPULATION IS IN CONSTANT TURMOIL, THE RESULT BEING THERE WILL NOT BE SUFFICIENT AMOUNT OF EITHER KIND OF MICROBE. A little grain can be fed with roughage without interfering with digestion as long as the amount of grain is kept very low.

Fats: are another type of energy nutrient, however the energy in fats is much more concentrated than that in carbohydrates. Fats are not easily digested by cows and should never make up more than 5% of its ration.

Proteins: build material for muscles, bones, blood, organs, skin hair, hoof and horn growth as well as the production of milk. If an animal is feed more than it needs, the nitrogen that is produced is used as an energy source and the balance is discarded in urine.  Feeds such as alfalfa hay or supplements cost more than other feeds.

Proteins for young animals, lactating cows or cows in late pregnancy can be supplied by good legumes hay such as alfalfa or clover, green pasture grasses or high quality grass hay.

Protein supplements include cottonseed meal, soybean meal and linseed meal.

A beef animal does not need protein supplements as long as it has good hay or pasture.

Protein blocks, if used properly, can be self-feeding. The best type of block is one that limits over-consumption with special binders or unpalatable ingredients along with a degree of hardness so cattle cannot eat the block rapidly but must lick it instead.  With a proper type of block you can put out a two-week supply near water where cattle will lick awhile when they come to drink and then go back to grazing.

Protein analysis: Protein levels in feeds are measured by amount of crude protein as determined by a laboratory analysis measuring amount of nitrogen. THIS IS DIFFERENT FROM DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN. A beef cow needs feeds with crude protein contention of 9 – 10%. Green, growing grass hay have crude protein content of 10-20%, but remember when the grass dries out it may drop below 8%. The difference between 6 and 10% crude protein is vast. Below about 4% crude protein nothing is digestible. The 4% that shows up as protein in the laboratory analysis is just the nitrogen combined with the woody portion of the plant. So grass with just 6% crude protein has only about 2% digestible protein. The grass with 10% crude protein has about three times more digestible protein. 

Vitamins: are required in small amounts but are necessary for health and growth. 

Green pastures, alfalfa hay and good grasses are sources of carotene which the animal converts into vitamin A and stored in the liver. 

With the exception of vitamin D other needed vitamins are provided in feed or created through digestion. Vitamin D is necessary for bone growth and mineral balances. It is found in the action of sunlight on the skin – unless the animal is confined to a barn no animal will be deficient of vitamin D.

Vitamin E is important for muscle development. Deficiency of vitamin E as well as selenium deficiency can lead to white muscle disease in young calves. It is found in natural feeds. White muscle disease is a fatal condition in calves in which heart muscle fibers are replaced with connective tissue caused by selenium deficiency.

Vitamin K is important for blood clotting, it too is found in feeds or created in the rumen.

Water soluble vitamins such as B and C are synthesized by microbes in the rumen therefore a beef animal should never be short on these unless it is ill when a veterinarian should be consulted.

Minerals: are required in very small amounts, however they are essential. Sodium, chlorine and potassium are crucial to fluid balance in both body and bloodstream.

Iron is important for red blood cells without it the blood does not carry oxygen.

Calcium and Phosphorus are needed for bone formation and milk production.

Mineral are well supplied in feed as they are to be found in forage/roughage and grain and only need to be supplement when circumstances dictate.

Salt contains two important minerals those of sodium and chlorine which are the only minerals not found in grass or hay. IT IS ESSENTIAL TO PROVIDE A BLOCK OF SALT OR LOOSE SALT. Cows will only consume sufficient salt for their need.

An overdose is not only a waste of money but more importantly, harmful. 

Trace mineral salt can be used if feeds are deficient in certain minerals. They are needed in small amounts only and include copper, iron iodine, cobalt, manganese, selenium and zinc.

When cattle graze all the year round phosphorus supplements are most important. Deficiencies are most likely to occur in cows kept for long periods on dry grass or crop residues. Phosphorus level in most harvest forages such as hay is adequate especially for dry cows. The time to supplement is when they have been kept on dry grass for a long time or are yielding a lot of milk.

Concentrates: are dense, with more energy, they are also expensive more so than forages, but they have a higher percentage of easily digested carbohydrates. REMEMBER, NOT ALL GRAINS WEIGH THE SAME. Weigh feeds to find out how much your scoop or buck really hold in terms of weight for a particular feed, and recheck it when changing feeds. For example, making a change in a steer's ration without adjusting for weight of the new feed may lead to digestive problems.

Precautions when feeding Grain Supplements: When feeding high energy grain supplements there is the risk of acidosis if cattle overeat. Acidosis, which is a build up of acids - occurs when an acid environment is created in the rumen. Spread the supplement among the cattle so each one gets an equal share. Overeating this type of supplement may case liver abscesses, caused by mild cases of acidosis. A liver abscess may no be a problem in a steer being fattened since he will be butchered before the problem becomes life-threatening, but it can be a serious situation in a herd of cows.

Time of day to supplement:  The worst time is early morning when cattle are the most hungry, they prefer to eat the supplement and are slow to start grazing. The purpose of a supplement is to maximize the forage available, but if you feed in the morning the cattle come to expect the handout and go to the feeding area first thing in the morning and may stay until noon and not start grazing until afternoon!



NUTRITIONAL NEEDS:
If you don't have good pasture, sort your herd into groups for differing feeding because their needs ARE NOT THE SAME.

Growing Heifers:
Replacement heifers must gain at least half a kilo per day to be large enough to breed as yearlings. If they grow too slowly they will not mature soon enough to breed on schedule. Good cross-bred heifers grown enough on high-quality roughages alone – that is good grass hay and alfalfa hay mixed. But straightbred heifers do not have the hybrid vigor and feed efficiency and may only gain if supplemented.

If you buy weaned heifers you must feed them through winter before breeding them as yearlings. Weaned heifers can spend autumn and winter on pasture with some supplemental feed, or in a pen and be fed hay.

Lactating cows during breeding season:
They need most nutrients. Cows eat nearly twice as much hay when nursing calves and preparing to cycle and breed as they do in late pregnancy. The two most critical periods in the cows year are the 30 to 50 days just before calving, and 80 to 100 days after calving. Shortchanging a cow on feed quantity or quality at this time may reduce calf vigor and growth, milking ability, and increase risk of scours (diarrhea) and length of time before she cycles. Shortchanging her in the 3 months after calving may prevent her from breeding back.  If you have calves when cows can be on green pasture afterward your feeding takes care of itself. But if you calve at a time that requires non-pasture feeding during lactation and breading – be prepared to provide some for of supplement.

Calves on pasture:
You can provide calves with their own special area, one in which cows cannot get into when you can supply them with feed. This is also good for lactating cows when pastures are poor or when cows must be fed hay. It is also beneficial during periods of drought when green feed is short. This is also good for very old cows if they are not milking as well as the rest of the herd. The extra feed might even be profitable with large framed cattle or calves with great genetic inherited growth potential enabling them to be a lot larger at market. But be warned, sometimes the extra money you pay on feed/labor may not be reflected in the weight of the cow. And replacement heifers should never be kept in such an area because it will gain extra fat in the udder that takes up space that would otherwise be used by developing mammary tissue, which is the milk producing tissue in the udder – this can severely reduce their milking ability as cows.

Calves at weaning:
It is best to wean calves on green pasture.

If you are weaning in a corral and feeding hay and grain be aware of how the calf's rumen functions. Even though he has been eating roughages and now has a functional rumen, stress can interfere with proper digestion because rumen microbes die and the calf cannot digest roughages well. Without enough microbes to break down fiber, the hay he eats just says in the rumen. If the newly weaned calf is in a corral, make sure its feed is palatable and easy to digest. This is why some farmers start calves on grain immediately at weaning. Even though calves have to learn to eat it and may not eat much at first, the grain can be quickly digested because it passes through to the true stomach, where it is more fully digested than in the rumen.

Once the calf is over the stress of weaning and its rumen starts functioning normally again – and remember that high grain ration can cause acidosis – always include some roughage during the weaning process, preferably fine and leafy palatable hay. Problems can be avoided by weaning on green pastures.

FENCING
Fencing should be checked at regular intervals


SORTING YOUR CATTLE
The time will come when you need to sort your cattle, i.e. calves from cows, steers from heifers, or cattle to sell. The following tips will be useful when the time comes:  
Work cows in small groups. Put a few at a time in the sorting pen, make sure they are not jammed together.

If cattle are moving in the direction you want do not chase or hurry them.

Give cattle the chance to figure out what you want them to do and encourage them to move through the corral or chute without hassle.

Do not prod an animal unless it has a place to go.

Do not leave an animal in a pen by itself after other cows have gone into the chute.

Speak slowly and softly.

Try to avoid weight loss when sorting and loading cattle to sell.

Remember, every time a cow makes an extra trip around the corral, or runs instead of walking, or becomes excited and nervous expect "shrink" i.e. loss of weight.

STRESS IN THE CHUTE
Reduce pain and stress as much as possible.

If a cow has an eye problem and has to be restrained in order to treat it then use a halter instead of nose tongs. Do not squeeze the animal to tightly.

The chute sides must hold firmly so that they do not jiggle or rattle when the cow struggles because this will frighten them even more. However make sure it is not too tight. It is a good idea to have a chute made with solid sides to prevent the animal from seeing out.

When it comes to the runway do not be tempted to let to many go through at once. If they are jammed then there is the danger their heads become twisted or try to rear up – that is jump up over the next.

You will need halters and rope to tie the animal.

Place the halter so the adjustable part is on its left side. A handy type of halter is made from a length of rope with the extra rope serving as a lead rope or tie rope. You make these from a 10 – 12 feet (approx 3 meters) piece of nylon or 3 stranded manila rope. Nylon rope halters last longer than cotton or manila and do not shrink.

CHUTE DESIGN FOR ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
A chute to be used for artificial insemination should be different from the one used for sorting, doctoring, vaccinating.

Why? It has better conception rates.

Handle the cows gently while getting them into this chute to avoid upsetting them or causing them to become overheated. You do not need a headgate or squeeze for this type of chute.

PREPARATION FOR CALVING
A simple calving barn such as one constructed like an open shed with tall posts for supports is adequate. They can also be quickly made with large bales of hay high enough to create walls then all is needed is a roof. Make sure the shed is out of the wind.



CHAPTER 4 - HEALTH OF CATTLE
Some illnesses are mild whereas other life-threatening. YOU CAN VACINATE FOR SOME. Most illnesses can be prevented with proper nutrition and feeding practices, keeping things clean, and non-exposure to sick animals.

It is crucial to be diligent when calves are small.

The following are not all the diseases that affect cows, but they are perhaps the most common. A good veterinarian is worthwhile.

A healthy animal is bright and alert. It has a good appetite, comes eagerly at feeding time, or grazes along with the rest. Cattle at pasture generally graze in the morning, late afternoon an evening. They lie down during the heat of the day and chew the cud, which is a wad of food burped up from the rumen to be re-chewed. If a cow is slow to come to feed or spends more time than others lying down check it. This also applies to a cow that goes off by itself.

Warning signs: A sick or lame cow may spend a lot of time lying down. If she seems healthy and normal otherwise, get her up and make her walk a few steps to check for lameness from foot rot or injury.

A sick animal may appear dull with drooping ears. 

If a cow is not chewing the cud at times it ought to be this may indicate pain, fever or a digestive problem.

An animal that feels good usually stretches when it gets up and responds with curiosity to sounds and movement. It spends time licking itself and moves freely and easily where as a sick animal is less interested in its surroundings, less responsive to external situations. When it gets up it may be with effort or slowly, and it may not stretch.

The more serious the illness, the more indifferent the cow will be and the more reluctant to move.

If a cow is excited and overly alert, anxious, or abnormally restless, wandering about, lying down and getting up repeatedly, kicking the belly or switching the tail, looking around at its flanks, this could be a sign of constant pain. Excitability and running can be due to nervous disorders or other diseases that affect the brain. But sometimes an animal bothered by flies will run with its tail in the air, stopping suddenly and licking the belly, nosing at the flank or swatting flies off the body with its head. Wait awhile to see if the activity is due to flies or internal pain.

Heat affects a cow's respiration rate. It can also be a sign of sickness. In hot weather a cow will pant and it is hard to tell if it is hot or ill, when in doubt put it in chute and take its temperature, and check later on to see if respiration rate slows significantly after the heat of the day has passed.

Eating habits:
Watch for painful swallowing, check to see if it is drooling or dribbling feed out of the mouth, having trouble belching and chewing the cud. Check to see if it is spilling cud, coughing up feed, or regurgitating stomach contents out of the nostrils. Check to see if there is difficulty belching up the cud with grunting or extra effort.

Defecation and urination:
Some digestive problems cause constipation with straining or pain. Manure may be firm and dry, or absent if there is a gut blockage.

A sick animal may have diarrhea. Severe diarrhea may cause so much straining that the rectum prolapses.

Manure should be moderately firm, dark brown not green.

Urine should be clear and yellow.

If there is an obstruction such as a bladder stone or inflammation of the bladder or urethra, the animal may dribble small amounts of urine or remain in urination position a long time, kick at the belly in pain, or stand very stretch while urinating.

Observation of Abnormal posture:
Resting a leg could mean lameness. 

Arching the back with all four legs bunched under the body may indicate mild abdominal pain or pain in lungs from pneumonia.

Downward arching of the back may mean several abdominal pain.

Spraddling the front legs may mean chest pain or difficulty breathing.

A bloated animal may stand with front legs uphill for easier belching of gas.

When lying down an abnormal position may mean a sore or dislocated leg or internal pain.

An animal with pneumonia may lie on it breastbone for easier breathing.

A sick animal may lie with head tucked around toward its flank and not want to get up when approached.

General attitude and behavior:
Notice the animal from a distance before it focuses attention on you and is distracted. That way you can tell if the animal is off by itself, acting in an abnormal manner, or in an unusual posture that might indicate pain or distress.

Respiration:
In a healthy calf at rest should be about 20 breaths per minute (10-30 is normal). On a hot day it will breathe faster. Watch his sides, each in-out movement is one respiration. Count for 15 seconds and then multiply by 4.

Pulse Rate:
This is hard to determine unless you restrain the animal and listen to the heart with a stethoscope. Normal pulse in young calves is 100-120 beats a minutes. Adult cattle 60-80 beats a minute. 

Temperature:
Normal temperature is 101.5F. Anything over 102.5F is a fever. Anything below 100.5F is below normal and is also serious.

VACCINATIONS
You should check with your veterinarian as to which vaccinations are appropriate for your herd and when to use them, and do not forget to make a record of dates and type of vaccination.

Some vaccinations can be given that stimulate a cow to create antibodies against diseases that cause serious problem in newborn calves i.e. diarrhea caused by rotavirus, corona virus, or E. coli bacteria, or enterotoxaemia causes by C perfringens. If you vaccinate the cow 2 – 4 weeks before calving she will develop antibodies and her colostrums will contain a rich supply. This gives the calf temporary protection from these diseases if it is nursed immediately after birth, many antibodies from colostrums are absorbed directly into its bloodstream. If your calf develops diarrhea ask your vet which type of diarrhea it has and for the correct medication.

Calves should be vaccinated against blackleg, which is caused by bacteria in the soil such as malignant edema and other clostridial diseases when they are young, however calves vaccinated before 2 months old may not gain adequate immunity because their immune system is still immature. 

If calves are vaccinated in the first weeks of life they should be revaccinated and given another booster shot at weaning time.

Weaning is stressful to calves, and makes them vulnerable to respiratory diseases. Vaccinate against those diseases a couple of weeks before weaning if possible, so the calf has a chance to develop immunity before the stress of weaning.


If you vaccinated in the autumn just after weaning, yearlings need a booster vaccination in the spring. If you plan to butcher them in later summer or the autumn they won’t need to be vaccinated after this. But if you keep them over another winter you may need to give other booster shots in the autumn. Most calves are big enough to butcher by the autumn if they are a yearling.

Yearlings – that is calves between 1 and 2 years –  and cows should be vaccinated annually or half-yearly. Make sure you vaccinate for IBR (infectious bovine rhinotracheitis) and BVD (bovine viral diarrhea) during the period between calving and rebreeding when cows are NOT pregnant. Some vaccinations must be given at least three weeks before rebreeding since live virus vaccines can cause abortions or problems in developing fetus. Cows also need enough time to develop immunity before they become pregnant.

There is a vaccine against 5 of the most common types of Lepto that cause abortion in cows and gives immunity for approximately 6 months. For good protection cows should be vaccinated twice a year, since Lepto can cause abortion at any stage of pregnancy. Leptospiros also affects humans.

Vitamin A is essential for healthy epithelial tissue – that is the membrane lining the internal organs of the body. When cows are deficient in vitamin A calves may not be strong and healthy at birth. Severe deficiency may result and calves may be still-born. If feed is dry from the effects of drought or bleached by too much moisture, it may not contain enough vitamin A, when this is the case resolve the problem by giving pregnant cows an injection of vitamin A few weeks before calving.

STORAGE AND HANDLING OF VACCINES
Make sure the vaccines have been refrigerated and check expiration dates on labels. Vaccines stored beyond the expiration date lose potency.

When using vaccines keep them cool and out of the sun preferably in a Styrofoam container, ice chest or insulated cooler. Make sure to follow the directions for storage, mixing and injections. Modified live-virus products are especially fragile and exposure to heat or sunlight, or use of chemically disinfected syringes CAN MAKE THEM INACTIVE. LIVE VIRUS VACCINES SHOULD BE USED UP WITHIN 2 HOURS OF OPENING AND ADDING STERILE DILUTANT. NEVER MIX A MODIFIED LIVE VIRUS VACCINE WITH A KILLED PRODUCT. Do not save unused portions of multiple-dose bottles.

GIVING INJECTIONS
Many injections are given intramuscularly (IM) with a large needle for an adult cow i.e. 16 gauge at least 2 inches long. A smaller needle is used for a calf i.e. 18 gauge 1 -1,5 inches long). 
Some injections are given subcutaneously (SQ) under the skin between skin and muscle, others are given intravenously (IV) into a large vein. Follow directions for site of administration. IV INJECTIONS SHOULD BE GIVEN BY YOUR VET UNLESS HE SHOWS YOU HOW TO DO THIS.

Choose a sterile needle and syringe of appropriate size – 5cc for a small shot, 12cc for a medium size injection, 20cc for a large one.

Syringes are calibrated in cc (cubic centimeters) or ml (milliliters). To fill the syringe to proper dosage insert the needle through the rubber top of the bottle, turn the bottle upside down, and gently pull back the syringe plunger to create a vacuum so liquid flows from the bottle into the syringe. IF YOU GET AIR IN IT, HOLD IT IN A VERTICAL POSITION AND GENTLY PUSH THE PLUNGER UNTIL THE AIR IS ALL PUSHED OUT.

Before giving an injection, the animal should be restrained in a chute or pushed against a fence into a corner. You can hold a small calf yourself but a large calf may require someone else to help hold him still, and a cow should be in a chute.

If large calves, adults or any that may be butchered soon are to be injected then put all injections in the neck if possible. You may have to use the rump/buttocks as the site of injection - remember the rump as being one of the best cuts of meat - you do not want to damage tissue, scarring or have an abscess there especially in a small animal. If a calf or adult has a serious illness and needs repeated antibiotic injections over an extended period, the rump and buttocks give more muscle mass, but your first priority is to save its life. When you have a choice put all injections into the neck.

Giving the IM (into a muscle) injection.
Choose a large, thick muscle so you won't hit a bone. IM shots can be given in the rump or buttocks or thickest muscle of the neck. On a small calf the neck muscle is not large enough to properly absorb some types of injections such as certain antibiotics.

Make sure the area is clean and dry.

Detach the needle from the syringe, and hit or firmly press the injection site with the edge of your hand to desensitize the skin.

Put the needle in with a forceful thrust so it goes through the skin and into the muscle. A new, sharp needle goes in with least effort and less discomfort than a dull one.

If the animal jumps, wait until it settles down before attaching the syringe and giving the injection.

If blood appears in the syringe you have hit a vein so take the needle out and start over.
If the needle starts to ooze blood before you put the syringe on it, take it out and try again in a slightly different spot. DO NOT INJECT AN IM SHOT INTO A VEIN. Another way to tell if you have hit a vein is to pull back on the plunger before giving the injection.  

GIVING THE SQ (under the skin) INJECTION 
If you have a choice it is best to give an injection subcutaneously, because these shots are less likely to damage tissue.

Lift a fold of skin on shoulder or neck where the skin is loosest.

Slip the needle in. Aim it alongside the calf so it goes under the skin you have pulled up, not into the muscle.

Attach the syringe to the inserted needle – keeping hold of the loose skin to make sure the needle does not poke into the tissue – depress the plunger and give the injection.

REACTIONS TO VACCINATION
Temporary swelling at injection site is nothing to worry about.

Most serious is anaphylactic shock in which the animal has a severe allergic reaction and causes difficult breathing and collapse. FOR EMERGENCIES KEEP AN INJECTABLE ANTIHISTAMINE WITH YOUR MEDICAL SUPPLIES, ALONG WITH DEXAMETHASONE AND EPINEPHRINE (ADRENALIN). A shot of epinephrine and dexamethasone usually reverses this condition and the animal recovers quickly. If you animal suffers from such a reaction TREAT IT IMMEDIATELY that is as soon as you notice symptoms of shock. IF YOUR ANIMAL SUFFERS ANAPHYLACTIC REACTION TO CERTAIN VACCINES NEVER, EVER GIVE IT THE SAME VACCINE AGAIN BECAUSE IT MAY KILL IT.

An injection of dexamethasone during late pregnancy often causes the cow to go into labor and the calf is born too early to survive. NEVER GIVE DEXAMETHASONE TO ANY PREGANT COW, ESPECIALLY IN THE LAST TRIMESTER OF GESTATION. 

BRUCELLOSIS – BANGS DISEASE
Bangs disease - is the most common cause of abortion in cattle worldwide, IT CAN BE PREVENTED THROUGH VACCINES. Brucellosis is a threat to HUMANS AS WELL, IT CAUSES AMONGST OTHER SYMPTOMS EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCES AND ATTACKS THE CENTRAL AND OPTIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. DO NOT BUY ANY FEMALE COWS THAT DID NOT HAVE THEIR VACCINATIONS DURING THEIR CALF PERIOD. VACCINATED ALL HEIFER CALVES WITH THE PROPER AGE LIMIT I.E. BEFORE 10 MONTHS OF AGE.

BOVINE RESPIRATORY DISEASE
Cattle can suffer from upper respiratory tract infections – that is nostrils, throat and windpipe – diphtheria which involves the larynx or voice box, and lower respiratory infections, that is pneumonia.

Upper respiratory infections can cause excessive mucus production in the nose, fever, coughing and decreased appetite. Severe cases can be caused by stress, viral infection and bacterial infection. These types of infections are not as serious as diphtheria or pneumonia. 

Pneumonia – damaged, infected lungs
Strikes all ages and can be fatal. An animal with pneumonia has trouble pushing air out. Any severe stress such as sudden extreme changes in the weather, a long truck haul, bad weather during weaning, dusty conditions, dehydration and fatigue are all contributory factors. If your animal stops eating, stands humped up with dropping ears, with fast or labored breathing, cough, loud breathing, and crusty or excessive mucus in the nose it is cause to suspect pneumonia. Start antibiotics if the animal has a fever.

Diphtheria – swellings in throat obstructing the windpipe
This commonly affects young cattle, but it can also affect adults. Emerging teeth may give bacteria entrance if the mouth is sore. Mouth infection causes mild illness, throat infection can be more serious especially if swelling shuts of air passages or pneumonia develops. Whereas an animal with pneumonia has difficulty pushing air out, one with diphtheria has trouble drawing air in.

IBR Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis
Is sometimes called "Red Nose". It is caused by a herpes virus that can produce respiratory disease, abortion, eye problems and others. IT IS A COMMON VIRAL INFECTION AND CAN SPREAD RAPIDLY WHEREVER CATTLE ARE CONFINED IN GROUPS. 

Symptoms include a high fever 104 – 107 degrees F, a red nose which is inflammation of the muzzle and nostrils, loss of appetite, rapid or difficult breathing, dullness, profuse nasal discharge which is at first clear and watery, then becomes sticky and yellow and hangs from the nose in long strands. A watery discharge from the eyes becomes sticky as eyelids become inflamed.

Parainfluenza-3 PI3
This is a viral respiratory agent that by itself causes relatively mild disease, however severe problems can occur when it is combined with bacterial infection. Many IBR vaccines include PI3, so you can immunize cattle against both viruses at the same time.

Bovine Viral Disease (BVD)
This disease can contribute to more serious respiratory problems, amongst which is one strain of the virus that causes diarrhea, reproductive problems and suppression of immune system. 

Infection with two strains at the same time causes acute disease of the body's mucous membranes.

The diarrhea form may be acute or chronic. In acute cases cattle run a fever, stop eating, and the flow of milk is reduced. Occasionally their gums are ulcerated as are tongue and other areas in the mouth. CATTLE WITH ACUTE BVD GENERALLY DIE. If they do live they develop the chronic form with intermittent diarrhea, bloat, dullness and lack of appetite. TREATMENT IS RARELY HELPFUL.

If your animal is pregnant the virus also infects the fetus and may cause abortion in early gestation. Infection during the second or third month causes the fetus to suffer persistent infection of BVD, and the calf to experience poor health throughout its life. Infection through third to sixth months can cause birth defects. Infection of the fetus during the last part of gestation may result in the calf developing immunity to the virus.

PREVENTION OF BVD
Avoid overcrowding, stress and mixing cattle. Isolate sick ones and newly purchase animals. Discuss a vaccination program with your vet. It is usual to vaccinate females 30 days before breeding and young animals twice between 6 – 10 months of age.

Clostridial Diseases
The clostridial family of bacteria has spores and dormant (sleeping) stages that live in the soil and infect animals when conditions are right, or when animals eat the bacteria with their feed. These bacteria can produce deadly toxins (poisons) if they get into the bloodstream. Clostridia toxins are generally present in the intestinal contents of many normal animals, causing disease only in certain circumstances. THERE IS A VACCINATION FOR THIS DISEASE.

Blackleg
This is caused by Clostridium chavoei. It usually affects cattle under 2 years of age. It causes inflammation of muscles, severe toxemia and death.

The most common cause is contaminated feed.

Symptoms are that the animal becomes very dull, has a high fever, crackling swelling caused by gas bubbles which can be felt under the skin sometimes. The swollen leg is hot and painful then it becomes cold and numb. THE ANIMAL USUALLY DIES WITHIN 12 TO 36 HOURS. Vaccinate calves at 2 to 4 months of age and revaccinate at weaning to give lifelong immunity.

Malignant Edema
This is caused by Clostridium septicum and affects cattle of all ages. Bacteria in the spoil and feces of most domestic animals enter the body through deep wounds or vaginal or uterine injuries after difficult calving. DEATH OCCURS 24 – 48 HOURS. Massive does of penicillin may save an animal if given early. Vaccination prevents this disease.

Enterotoxemia
This is caused by Clostridium perfringens and is found in the lower intestinal tract. It affects calves when they have a slowdown or stoppage of gut movement such as being off feed awhile and loading up on too much milk.

IMPORTANT NOTE
A combination vaccine protects cattle against most of the deadly clostridial diseases. A separate vaccine can be given to protect against tetanus.

Rabies
Rabies is rare in cattle, however, cattle can be affected if bitten by a rabid animal. RABIES IS A FATAL VIRAL INFECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. INCUBATION IS 3 WEEKS OR LONGER. SYMPTOMS MAY NOT SHOW UNTIL UP TO 6 MONTHS AFTER BEING BITTEN. 
Symptoms are bending under of back fetlock joints, sagging and swaying of hindquarters when walking, dullness or excitability, drooling of salvia on account of difficulty swallowing. Cattle may run at other animals or objects, bellow loudly, or make yawning movements in voiceless attempts to bellow. The animal may behave strangely, be progressively dull and paralyzed for 1 – 6 days before dying. 

Coccidiosis
This is caused by protozoa that damaged the intestinal lining, creating severe, bloody diarrhea. Protozoa are passed in manure of carrier animals and in feces of sick animals.

Eye problems
There are several kinds of eye problems that affect cattle as well as injuries. IMMEDIATE CARE IS VITAL IN SOME CASES TO PREVENT LOSS OF VISION.

Pinkeye
Causes serious losses – poor weight gains expensive medications, lower sale price because of eye damage or blindness.

It pays to try and prevent this highly contagious disease and to treat affected animals in early stages.

Dust, face flies, and other eye irritations such as bright sunlight, tall grass brushing the eyes, viruses that damage the eye make conditions favorable for the bacteria to spread. Face flies are the principal spreaders of the disease during warm or hot weather.

To be effective topical treatments must be administered twice a day. 
A good way to treat the eye is to inject a small amount of penicillin combined with dexamethasone into the side of the eyelid under the lining in any location. One cc given in two locations is sufficient. One treatment is usually sufficient if given early. If neglected injections may need to be repeated in 2 or 3 days. Once the eye starts to heal it must still be protected, use a commercial eye patch or sew the eyelids shut.

Cancer of the eye
Cancer of the eye is the most common cancer in cattle with 50 – 80% being malignant tumors. White faced or light skinned animals are most prone as are mature animals.

There are two types of eye cancer - they are growths on the eyeball and growths on the eyelids.

Tumors on the eyeball grow out from the surface and if you detect them early and treat them while the growths are small the cancer can be successfully cured as the first stags are not malignant. It is recommended to stitch the eyelids to make them immobile, eye patches can be rubbed off or come loose. Because the eyelids are made immobile the eye is constantly bathed in its own tears and this has a healing effect.

Before stitching the eye of an animal confine it in a cute, the head must be immobilized using a halter which is tied around to the side of the chute.

Make sure your hands are clean before you start the procedure. You will need to use a strong, lightweight surgical thread and a curved disinfected surgical needle. 

Push the needle carefully through the hairy part of the outside of the eyelid and anchor the stitch in the tough skin. Three or four stitches should be sufficient. Do not go too deep, just enough to hold so that the stitch won't pull out in a few days, good stitching should last several weeks. When the eye has healed take the stitches out.

Between the second and third week the ulcer should have gone and the cloudiness cleared up. However there might still be a spot on the eye but the tissues will appear bright and healthy again. The eyesight should be restored though a severe case may take several more weeks.

Growths on the lower eyelid, third eyelid and either corner of the eye – not the eyeball – are not malignant in early stages but can progress to a tumor that looks similar to a wart but is pink or red, irregular in shape and size that become ulcerated, bleeds easily and often has a bad smell.

Cancer of the eyeball is less serious than that of the eyelid. It can enter the eye socket and lymph nodes to spread quickly and kill the cow. A lump below the base of the ear shows the lymph system is already invaded and it is too late to sell the cow because her carcass will be condemned at slaughter. A common site for cancer is on the eyeball where the white and dark portions meet. A veterinarian will use a scalpel to remove a small white growth from the corner of the eyeball, the using an electric probe he burns the area for 30 seconds to skill stray cancer cells.

Check your cattle's eyes regularly, and at least twice a year when they are being prepared for vaccination in the chute. ALWAYS GET YOUR VET TO REMOVE SMALL WHITE EYEBALL PLAQUE IF THEY START TO ENLARGE. SELL THE COW IF THEY START TO GROW. EYELID TUMORS OFTEN REGROW EVEN IF THEY HAVE BEEN REMOVED BEFORE AND BECOME MALIGANT SO IT IS BETTER TO SELL OR BUTCHER THE COW.

OTHER EYE PROBLEMS
BURDOCK SLIVERS AND OTHER FOREIGN MATERIAL
Burdock slivers and other foreign material can get stuck in the membrane that lines eyelids and eyeballs and case inflammation or ulceration. When your animal is in the chute your vet can flush them out or remove them.

During the autumn and winter unexplained eye problems can arise most likely caused by microscopic barbed slivers of burdock seeds. The cornea of the eye, which is a membrane cover the eye, may become inflamed or ulcerated turning the eye cloudy with a white spot or bulge on it, this has often been mistaken for pinkeye, but remember pinkeye is a warm season problem, whereas burdock slivers occur in the autumn and winter after the burrs are ripe.

If the inflamed eye does not respond to antibiotics it might be on account of a burr fragment. They eye usually recovers if treated in the same way as a bad case of pinkeye – that is injected with antibiotics into the inner surface of the eyelid, keeping the eyelid sewed shut for several weeks. The sliver works itself out over time and the eye heals.

EYE INJURIES
Eye injuries can result for scraping or bruising such as if an animal runs into a stick or is bumped hard when fighting. A scraped or bruised eye turns blue or cloudy and waters. The injury heals as long as the inner structures are not seriously damaged or the eyeball ruptured. The treatment is to inject an antibiotic cortisone mix into the inner eyelid to help relieve the pain, swelling and inflammation. If the injury appears serious call your vet to come and look at it.

FOOTROT
Footrot displays signs of swelling, heat and inflammation in soft tissues between the two sides of the foot that results in sudden, severe lameness.

There are several bacteria that cause footrot, however, the most common is the hardy fusobacterium necrophorum. If an animal has a break in the skin of the foot it can pick up infection, as can wet or muddy areas.

The signs of footrot are swelling of the foot above the hoof between the toes or at the heel. Toes may become spread apart by the swelling. In the early stages the animal may run a fever of 103 – 106 degrees F and loose their appetite. It might be thought that an animal has sprained or broken its foot on account of the enlarged inflammation. Due to footrot the milk yield is less and bulls may become temporarily infertile. The infertile period in a bull comes about 60-90 days after the fever because it is during this time that the sperm being formed are adversely affected and the excessive heat is detrimental to sperm production. Sperms are the cells from the bull that swim to meet the egg in the cow's reproductive tract to fertilize the egg and create an embryo. The bull may remain fertile awhile since mature sperm in his reproductive tract may be fine. But if he has footrot early in the breeding season before being put with the cows, he may be infertile just when you need him most. If a bull has footrot, take his temperature while you have him confined for treatment. If he has a fever, check his semen 60 days later.

Treatment: If an animal has had foot rot for some time there will be a noticeable loss of weight because its lameness hinders its ability to walk to feed and water.  The swelling usually discharges fluid such as pus after a few days between the toes or at the heel and this contaminates the pen or pasture. 

Most cases heal quickly if treated in the first or second day of swelling and lameness. Most footrot cases need only 3 to 5 days of antibiotic treatment. Use a combination of sulfa and oxyteracycline. Long standing cases take a longer course of antibiotics before they clear up.

If the disease goes untreated, infection may get into the joint causing infectious arthritis and permanent crippling.  

LUMP JAW
Anything that punctures the tissues of the mouth can lead to infection or the creation of an abscess.

There are two kinds of lump jaw. Each is caused by different bacteria and requiring different treatment.

Soft tissue infections are fairly easy to treat. Sometimes these abscesses break and drain by themselves, but they often have to be lanced, drained and disinfected before they can heal.

Lump jaw can also be caused by an infection in the bone and is more difficult to stop and can result in having to sell the animal or butcher it. This type of lump jaw occurs most often in young cattle 2 or 3 years old.

The most common form of lump jaw is caused by actinobacillus bacteria which forms an abscess in soft tissues, the most common site is along the lower jaw. The lump can be hard or soft and can even be as large as a tennis ball, but if pressed firmly it can be moved around as it is not attached to the bone.  Check to see if the lump is an abscess by inserting a large needle into the lump. If it is an abscess puss will be on the needle when removed. When this is the case lance the abscess at its lowest point with a scalpel or sharp clean knife for drainage, then squeeze the pus out and flush it with a 7% solution of tincture of iodine, or mix of equal parts Nolvassan, water and hydrogen peroxide. There are times when an abscess is slow to heal, this is because it develops a mass of dead tissue inside it and may have to be removed by your vet in order to heal. On rare occasions the infection may get into the lymph system and produce multiple lumps, when this is the case all swollen nodes must be drained and the animal given antibiotics to prevent systemic infection.

Flushing out an abscess with iodine solution may also be unwise in a pregnant cow as it may result in abortion. It is better to play safe and use a less toxic disinfectant or antiseptic solution.

Boney Lump Jaw
The cause of this type of lump jaw is bacteria called antinomies and the condition is called actinomycosis. In this case bacteria enters a wound in the mouth in the way as Actinobacillus but infects the bone if the break in the tissues penetrates to the bone. This affects for the most part two year calves when they are shedding their baby teeth and getting new ones. Infection can enter through the dental sockets. 

The infected jaw bone creates a painless, hard immobile boney enlargement, usually at the level of central molars. Later on they may become painful and interfere with chewing. The infection may eventually break through the skin and oozing pus or a sticky fluid that has hard granules. This time lancing is of no value because the infected bone will not drain. Teeth in the infected jawbone may become misaligned and cause pain when chewing and difficultly in eating occurs. The infection may spread to softer tissues and involve muscles and lining of the throat. This can interfere with breathing. The animal may become so thin and die.

This form of lump jaw is easy to diagnose because it does not move and has no pus, but it is hard to treat. It is not a typical abscess and must be treated from inside out via the bloodstream that serves the bone. Your vet can inject sodium iodide into the jugular vein. This may have to be done twice at two week intervals. IV injections must be administered carefully and slowly or else the animal will go into shock. All of this treatment may not be successful and the cow may eventually have to be butchered.

Sodium iodide – sometimes given intravenously to treat boney lump jaw should not be given to a pregnant cow. Flushing out an abscess with iodine solution may also be unwise. It is better to play safe and use a less toxic disinfectant or antiseptic solution.

MASTITIS IN BEEF COWS
Mastitis is the inflammation of the udder. It develops if a quarter of the udder and becomes infected when a cow lies in mud or manure and bacteria enter the teat canal or drags her udder through a deep, dirty ditch. Mastitis can also result from bruising as damaged tissues create ideal conditions for infection. 

If the infection stays localized in the udder – just one quarter – the mammary tissue may be damaged but the infection is not life-threatening. However, the quarter may be permanently damaged without prompt treatment. When the infection does not stay localized and gets into the bloodstream, the cow will go off its food and have a fever. Unless you treat it swiftly you may lose not only that quarter or even part of the udder but the cow itself.

When a cow has mastitis its quarter is large and swollen. It may also be in pain and walk carefully with shortened stride. At first glance you might think she is lame.

Treatment
Mastitis must be treated as soon as it is discovered. Mammary infusions for dairy cows work well. Insert a syringe into the teat opening to squirt into the affected quarter. Ask your vet, some medications are to be given once a day others twice.

Milk out as much as you can. It may be lumpy, infected milk or abnormal fluid. Having done this inject the medication. Milk it out at least twice a day until the infection clears up and the quarter is producing normal milk again. If a cow is at all sick, off feed or runs a fever, give her a systemic antibiotic and continue until she recovers. MASTITIS CAN BE VERY SERIOUS, CONSULT YOUR VET FOR EACH CASE.

HARDWARE DISEASE
Cattle have been known to consume foreign material with food such as small pieces of wire or stones. This can cause serious injury if they push through the gut lining. When this happens, the bacteria from the digestive tract get into the abdominal cavity creating infection called peritonitis, which is an infection in the abdominal cavity, and this may kill the cow. Sharp objects have also been known to penetrate organs such as lungs and heart.

A cow with this disease goes off her feed, may have a high fever and breathing problems, it may stand humped up with pain, or breathe with grunting sounds. If the problem is in its early stages and no organs have been damaged you may save the cow by giving her a strong magnet - that is a long smooth one put down her throat with balling gun, and administering antibiotics until she recovers. The magnet attracts and holds metal objects in the stomach away from gut walls even during digestive action. IT IS IMPORTANT TO MAKE SURE YOUR YARDS/PASTURES ETC ARE FREE FROM JUNK, NAILS, BROKEN WIRE. MAKE SURE THAT BAILED FODER DO NOT HAVE PIECES OF WIRE IN IT.

BLADDER STONES – URINARY CALCULI
Feeds high in phosphorus, silicates and oxalates found in certain plants can cause cattle to develop urinary stones or the stones may develop on account of insufficient fluids in cold weather. If cattle are short on fluids there is the danger that salts in urine may form crystals because the urine is thick and concentrated. The crystals can clump together and create stones - that is hard masses of mineral salts and tissue cells that block urinary passages and cause pain. Steers and bulls are most at risk.

The symptoms of bladder stones are abdominal pain, kicking at the belly, standing stretched, licking the belly, treading with hind feet, switching the tail, grinding the teeth and trying to urinate without success or dribbling small amounts of urine. When these signs are noticed call your vet for an examination. The danger is that if blockage is complete the bladder or urinary passage may rupture causing urine to collect in the abdomen which in turn causes toxemia and death within 48 hours.

BLOAT
Excessive gas is sometimes the result of indigestion or other disruption of normal functions. When too much gas builds up in the rumen, the right rumen puts pressure on the lungs and heart. Belching may not get rid of the excess gas, especially if it is frothy. 

Several feeds can cause bloat and include legume pasture, rich alfalfa hay, too much grain, or finely chopped hay or grain. 

A bloated animal when viewed from behind appears puffed up on the left side where the rumen is located. As the condition worsens both sides puff up and the animal is unable to breathe.

Prevention:
Feed a product that contains an antifoaming agent such as Bloat Guard. Cattle grazing on legume pasture should be given blocks in place of their salt several days ahead so that they will be eating it regularly by the time they are turned loose to start eating the lush pasture. Antifoaming agents such as Poloxalene can prevent frothy bloat for 12 hours when consumed in adequate amounts.

NEVER PUT CATTLE ON WET LEGUME PASTURES. Do not make them hurry when moving them out of a lush pasture or bringing one in for treatment because excessive movement agitates rumen contents and can cause or intensify bloat. Bloat can occur 3 or 4 hours after eating fermentable feeds.

Treatment:
DEATH THROUGH SUFFICATION CAN OCCUR IF AN ANIMAL IS NOT TREATED QUICKLY.  Bloat that has not become life-threatening can be relieved by passing a stomach tube or rubber hose 8 – 10 feet long into the animal through the throat to expel some gas, also the pouring of mineral oil into the rumen through the tube to break up the foam. When putting any tube or hose down the throat wedge the mouth open with a block of wood or some other firm object to keep the hose from being chewed up.

When the bloat is very severe there isn't much time to treat the animal, so puncture the rumen to expel the gas. To do this you need a trocar which is a sharp instrument for poking a hole in the rumen. A trocar should always be kept in an easy to remember place for emergencies.

In the event that the animal is on the verge of gasping, dying and a trocar is not available use a sharp pocket knife to jab the distended rumen – many cows have been saved in this way. If in your haste the hole is too large a vet can sew it up later.

If the foam is so thick that the gas cannot escape through a needle or trocar puncture, make a larger incision with a sharp knife 3 – 4 inches long spreading it apart with your fingers. Keep at least one finger in the hole to hold it open until the bloat is completely relieved, if this is not done then the rumen may move away from the opening – call your vet to close the incision.

ACIDOSIS AND LAMINITIS
If cattle are fed with forage diets there is no risk of acidosis. However, when feeding grain for fattening, be careful and avoid it because a sharp increase in the grain ration can cause acidosis.

Treatment should be prompt and reversed because acidosis shuts down digestion and causes fever or severe diarrhea. The manure becomes gray, watery and bubbly. IN SERIOUS CASES THE ANIMAL DEVELOPS LAMINITIS OR DIES.

Prevention:
Draw up a feeding schedule and stick to it. When feeding a lot of grain, split it into two meals. There is a danger if something interferes with the schedule or the animal goes off feed and then gorges itself because acidosis can occur. When changing the diet from forage to grain do it gradually over a couple of weeks before you give them the full increase of grain.

Treatment:
The animal will have stopped eating. Give it sodium bicarbonate to neutralize the acid. This is done by mixing soda bicarbonate with water and then given in the stomach by means of a tube – check with your vet as to the correct dosage.

Laminitis can follow acidosis and causes sever lameness. Attachments between the hoof wall and the sole of the foot become sore and may separate, the result is deformed hooves. LAMINITIS IS A SERIOUS EMERGENCY – CALL YOUR VET. Early treatment may be able to prevent permanent lameness.

POISONING: TOXIC PLANTS
If cattle have been moved to a new pasture or fed different hay and there are sudden illnesses or even fatalities suspect plant poisoning.

MANY PLANTS CAN CAUSE SICKNESS, DEATH, METABOLIC DISORDERS, ABORTION, AS WELL AS OTHER PROBLEMS.
SOME PLANTS MAKE GOOD FEED IN SMALL AMOUNTD OR CERTAIN SEASONS BUT ARE POISONOUS IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS.
SOME PLANTS ARE ALWAYS POISONOUS AND INCLUDE LUPINE, LARKSPUR AND HALOGETON. OTHER ARE HARMLESS UNTIL THEY HAVE BEEN TREATED CHEMICALLY THESE INCLUDE CHOKECHERRY LEAVES. SOME PLANTS ABSORB SUBSTANCES FROM THE SOIL AND THEREBY INCREASE THEIR TOXIC LEVELS, SUCH AS SELENIUM IN LOCOWEED AND OTHER MILKVETCHES. SOME PROBLEMS ARE CAUSED BY FUNGI OR MOLDS ON PLANTS.

Poisoning depends on palatability of the plant, stage of development, conditions under which it grows, moisture content, and the portion eaten – some have highest concentration of poison in roots or seeds. Before turning your animals into new pastures get rid of any toxic plant.

PLANTS TOXIC TO CATTLE:
Arrowgrass
Brackenferm
Broom snakeweed
Buckeye or hose chestnut
Chokecherry
Death camus
Greasewood
Halogeton
Hemlock
Horsetail
Jimsonweed
Johnsongrass – after drought or frost
Larkspur
Locoweed
Lupine, which is a wild flower
Milkweeds
Oak
Pigweed
Ponderosa pine needs
Prince's plume
Sweetclover - if it has become spoiled and moldy
Yew
Ask your vet if there are additional poisonous plants in your area.

Symptoms of Poisoning    
Abdominal pain
Blindness
Bloat
Collapse
Constipation
Diarrhea
Drooling
Excitement
Irregular heartbeat or breathing
Muscle tremors
Stagger or lack of coordination.

Ask you vet which other plants are poisonous in your area.

PHOTSENSITIZATION
This is a skin disease caused by eating plants that contain chemicals that intensify the damaging action of the sun. Pigmented skin is not affected but pink skin can be damaged that look burned or blistered. 

Damage can be so deep that the affected skin dies. Unlike other skin problems, photosensitization affects just white markings such as those on the face, legs and udder. Light skinned animals may be affected on parts of the body that get the most direct sunlight. 

Plants that can cause photosensitization include fescue, some clovers, wild carrot, lupine, perennial rye grass, and dried buckwheat. Photosensitization is uncommon in winter, long hair helps protect the skin and some plants that cause this problem may not grow at this time of year.

Affected areas swell, itch and look sunburned and thereafter blister, developing thick crusts and oozing cracks. Sunshine causes pain and the animal stops eating.

Treatment:
Remove the animal from direct sunlight, give it antihistamines and antibiotics. Steroids reduce inflammation, soreness and swelling but should not be given to a pregnant cow during late gestation or she may abort. If shock occurs treat with intravenous fluids. Soothing ointments help the healing of damaged skin, prevent itching and pain.

GRASS TETANY
This problem can occur in late gestation or lactating cows grazing early lush pastures, especially crested wheatgrass or immature cereal grains that grow rapidly and are short on magnesium.

Animals affected by grass tetany are restless, leave the herd, stop grazing, may become aggressive or run for no reasons, or even collapse when moved or excited. Their gait may lack coordination, and stagger this is followed by convulsion, coma and death

Prevention:
Use pastures that include a few legumes or mature plants, or feed a mineral mix containing magnesium.

Treatment:
IV injection of calcium magnesium gluconate (200 – 500 ml) is quite effective, once give the cow will soon be able to get up. Another effective treatment is a magnesium enema which the cow absorbs though the rectum. Dissolve 60 grams of magnesium chloride (Epsom salt) in 200 ml water and give by way of a collapsible plastic bottle attached to a plastic tube – this is cheaper and safer than an IV.

EMPHYSEMA
Occasionally cattle suffer sever reaction when changed suddenly from dry pastures to green pasture. What happens is the lungs fill with fluid a few days after the change in feed which produces difficult breathing similar to that of human asthma. The animal may try to breath through its mouth and froth. The problem is caused by amino acid (tryptophan) found in lush green forages that is transformed by rumen bacteria into a poison that is absorbed by the blood and carried to the lungs where the reaction takes place. WHEN A COW SUFFERS FROM RESPIRATORY DISTRESS EVEN THE EFFORT OF JUST MOVING IT TO THE CORRAL FOR DOCTORING MAY CAUSE THE ANIMAL TO COLLAPSE AND DIE.

Treatment:
Use antihistamines, cortisone, and adrenalin.
Prevention:
Do not put cattle in to a lush green pasture from a dry one, make it transitional in a not so green pasture or on hay. If cattle start to show symptoms a few days after being moved into a greener pasture, gently move the herd out of the offending pasture into a drier one taking care not to excite them.

NITRATE POISONING
Nitrate poisoning is most likely to occur when pasture or hay has accumulated high levels of nitrate, as when excessively fertilized or drought stressed. Oat hay can be very deadly under certain conditions. Immature green oats, barley, wheat hay, Sudan grass and corn fodder contain toxic amounts of nitrate, as can Johnsongrass, bromegrass, orchardgrass and Russian thistle. Nitrate concentration is greatest in the lower parts of the plant.

Symptoms include respiratory problems or excessive drooling, nervousness, convulsions, diarrhea and abortion. Difficult breathing is common. Low levels of poisoning can cause abortion without other symptoms.  

Prevention:
In some types of hay following drought, do not cut for at least 10 days after rain. Test hay samples for nitrate toxicity. The only safe way to feed hay with high nitrate content is to dilute it by mixing it with other hay. DO NOT FEED HIGH NITRATE HAY TO PREGNANT COWS.

INTERNAL PARASITES
Worms can infest the digestive tract of cattle especially animals grazing on irrigated pastures and young animals that have no resistance. A young animal may lose weight or have a rough hair coat, poor appetite, diarrhea, or cough. Less severe infections may not be detectable without a fecal sample.

Several species of roundworms infect cattle.

One lives in the lungs and others in the digestive tract where they lay eggs that pass out with manure. After the eggs hatch larvae travel onto forage plants and are eaten by grazing cattle and the cycle begins all over again.

Deworming at proper times of the year eliminate egg-laying adults in the intestines so no eggs are passed in manure to contaminate fee, pasture and bedding. Ask your vet to devise a deworming schedule.

LIVER FLUKES
If your pasture has wet areas populated with snails this can cause a problem. Cattle eat the tiny parasites attaced to plants growing near water. The young flukes migrate to the bile ducts of the liver. Later on eggs are passed in the manure and hatch in water to penetrate snails from which they emerge, attach themselves to vegetation and undergo another phase of their life cycle.

If possible fence off ponds, ditches etc. If this is not possible and your pasture has wet areas then treat the cattle once or twice a year to kill the flukes. Ask your vet as to the best time of year to do this.

CATTLE GRUBS
Cattle grubs are the immature stage of heel flies that develop in the body of the cattle. Adult flies pester cattle and interfere with grazing, the immature larvae live within the body most of the year and rob cattle of nutrients. The emerging grubs come out through the skin of the back and make holes that damage the hide.

Heel flies torment cattle their legs and lay their eggs on hairs. Cattle attacked by egg-laying heel flies run with tails in the air, and will charge into the brush or even crash through fences.

Treatment:
Controlling the adult flies is practically impossible therefore control them by destroying the first stage larvae in the body before they travel to the back. Use systemic insecticides – they are absorbed into the body and kills grubs wherever located at time of treatment. Cattle should also be treated after the heel fly season is over or at least three months before the appearance of grubs in the back. Ask your vet what is most appropriate in your area.

EXTERNAL PARASITES
These include flies, mosquitoes, lice, ticks and mites. Some feed on blood and cause anemia or even death. Several diseases can be spread by these parasites.

The primary offender affecting cattle are horn flies, horse flies, deer flies, face files, and in some areas black flies, gnats and mosquitoes. Flies cause cattle to loose weight, suck blood, cause discomfort and irritation.

HORN FLIES are the cause of the most economic loss because they reduce the daily weight gain in calves as much as 40 pounds. However, they can be controlled with proper insecticides which can be applied in different methods. Back rubbers, and dust bags are effective if properly managed – place them stretching over the gateway poles where cattle travel every day or near water where cattle use them regularly. Any device that sprinkles insecticide dust on the animal when it rubs usually works. If the applicator is refilled regularly and the insecticide changed periodically the flies are less likely to become resistant.

Oral larvicides added to mineral mixes or given by bolus kill fly larvae in manure when flies lay eggs in it. Pour-on chemicals and sprays give good control but must be repeated at regular intervals.

Insecticide impregnated ear tags are an easy method of control. Attach them at the start of the fly season, two tags per animal and remove them in the autumn. Tags should be inserted during late spring or early summer.

Start your control program when you can count at least 50 flies on one side of a cow, but do not count when the weather is cool. During warmer hours horn flies tend to move under the belly making it difficult to count.

A cow raising her calf should be protected until it has been weaned, why, because it can make a difference in weaning weights. Put tags on during early June if you wean in late summer or autumn. For earlier protection use pour-on insecticides or dust applicators if needed, needless to say if you wean in midsummer put the tags on earlier. Tags are most effective during the first 60 days that is why tagging cattle late gives good control during peak fly season. Be sure to ask your vet what is the best approach to fly control in your area.

HORN FLY RESISTANCE
If the same insecticide is used year after year the result will be horn fly resistance.

Rotate between synthetic pyrethroid and organophosphate insecticides. Many vets recommend organophosphate tags for two years followed by pyrethroids for one year, then organophosphate. In areas that have long fly seasons, alternate yearly or even more often.

Face flies do not develop resistance to insecticides, you can use any kind of tag. Horn flies affect every animal and are a larger problem than outbreaks of pinkeye, therefore choose a tag that control horn flies, it will also do the job for face flies.

To know if your tags are effective, observe the number of horn flies on the backs and shoulders of your cattle. If you recently put in insecticide tags and still see large numbers of flies then you have a large population of resistant flies. 

LICE
Infestations of lice are most rampant in winter. They too rob cattle of nutrition when they need it most, the result is loss of weight and reduced milk production and the animal becomes more prone to disease.

Biting and sucking lice cause sever irritation and itching. If cattle scratch and rub against feeders, gates or posts are most likely infested. IF A COW IS INFESTED WITH A LOT OF LICE IT MAY CAUSE THE COW TO ABORT. Winter hair gives lice protection and provide an ideal place for reproduction. 

Be careful not to put lice-free cattle in a corral where lousy animals have been rubbing. If you use brushes, halters or other equipment on lousy cattle know that lice can be transmitted to healthy cattle if you use them.

Lice infest cattle all year round and the most numerous are found on sick or thin animals, restrain an infested animal in a chute and check it. Part the hair on shoulders or head, you can see them with the naked eye but a magnifying glass makes it easier. Lice eggs appear as small white, yellow or even black barrel-shaped specks attached to hairs. If you find just one animal in your herd infested, the rest are likely to be infested.

Treatment:
Treat all animals in contact with an infested animal in early autumn before the lice population has a chance to build up. To be effective two treatments two weeks apart is required if you use a product that kills lice but not eggs. The second treatment kills lice that hatch in between. There are also products that kill the eggs as well.

Sprays, powders, back rubbers and dust bags suspended across a gate and pour-on products work, however they will not kill the eggs. A second spray no later than 18 days afterward is necessary. Be careful not to use back rubbers and dust bags near water to avoid water contamination. It is important to follow label directions and don't use them with other insecticides such as ear tags. Do not be tempted to exceed recommended dose of pour-ons.

There are some insecticides that kill cattle grubs and must be used before winter to avoid toxic reaction from grubs dying while migrating through the esophagus or spinal nerve canal. Check with your vet.

Prevention:
Isolate and inspect new cattle and treat if infested, keep them insolated for at least 3 days after lousing. Do not mix treated and untreated animals. Be sure not to let uninfected cattle come into contact with corrals, feed bunks, sheds or other equipment you have used for lousy cattle. For best control, treat cattle in late autumn and again in mid winter or early spring.

TICKS
Ticks cause severe irritation, weight loss, anemia and have been known to cause death. TICKS ALSO TRANSMIT DISEASES. 

There are two types, a hard-bodied tick and a soft bodied tick that looks like a raison with wrinkled skin. The small deer ticks spread Lyme disease which causes fever, lameness, and arthritis in cattle and is treatable with penicillin.

Hard-bodied ticks feeding at the base of the skull can cause paralysis in cattle because they secrete a toxin that causes a slow wasting disease if not removed. Sometimes the affected animal is unable to stand up, however removal results in instant recovery.

Ticks can be controlled with insecticide chemicals used as sprays, dips or dusts.

Ear ticks can be controlled directly applying an approved insecticide into the animal's ears.

SKIN PROBLEMS
Cattle are subject to various skin problems such as ringworm that is a fungal infection and causes scaled patches of skin, worms and mange caused by mites that feed on the skin. These conditions can be easily remedied. Prompt treatment is essential as they may spread through direct contact.

Ringworm:
This is a fungus common in winter and is characterized by round, hairless areas of 1 to 2 inches wide. The affected skin is crusty or scaly. Ringworm is spread by direct contact with infected animals or by rubbing on the same objects. Confine the infected animal in a chute and treat with a fungicide such as iodine on the hairless areas.

Warts:
These are skin growths caused by a virus and often appear where the skin has been broken. They can occur in the ear after tagging. They affect calves and yearlings more than adults. Although they are unsightly they usually go away after a few months.

Scabies mites:
This kind of mite deposits eggs on the skin. They attack any part of the body covered with hair, pricking the skin to obtain food from tissue fluids. If they are allowed to multiply many wounds are made that cause inflammation, intense itching and small sores. The sores ooze and mix with dirt, creating a scab that subsequently becomes infected, hardens to a gray or yellow color. Scabs increase in size as mites feed on healthy skin on shoulders or tail head and eventually infest the entire body. As with other parasites scabies mites cause loss of weight and the animal may die if not controlled.

Mange mites:
Mange mites establish themselves where the hair is thin and the skin tender, such as inner surface f legs, testicles, or the top of the udder. Where as scabies mites are active on the surface of the skin mange mites burrow into the skin and lay eggs. If not controlled they spread under the bellow to the brisket (the front of the cow above the legs) and upward to the tail-head and eventually over the whole body causing loss of hair and heavy dry scabs. Infested animals have thick wrinkled skin.

The same precautions taken for cattle handling of animals with scabies mites should be applied.

Treatment
Thorough wetting of skin with insecticide, two applications 10 – 12 days apart will rid the animals of mites. There is also an injectable worming drug called Ivermectin that is also effective.



SNAKE BITES
An animal that has been bitten by a snake requires treatment – some snakes are more deadly than others.

The venom of pit vipers which include rattlesnake, water moccasin, copperhead etc., contain two types of toxin. One attacks the nervous system and the other causes severe swelling at the site of the bite. A rodent or other small animal may die from the neurotoxin but a larger animal is not normally in so much danger unless the bite is on the face where swelling may constrict air passages that lead to suffocation.

Bites on leg or foot cause pain and swelling but do not need treatment unless infection develops.

A bite on the face should be treated with anti-inflammatory drugs to minimize swelling. Broad-spectrum antibiotics and tetanus antitoxin which is an antibody that counteracts a bacterial toxin, should be given. If the bite is several days old before discovered, the infected swelling should be lanced and flushed out. If the animal is ill with fever or in shock call the vet.

STRANGULATED TEAT FROM HAIR UDDER
Long hairs wet from milk left by a nursing calf may curl around the top of a teat.

As the udder fills with milk between nursings and the teat enlarges, the matted hair encircling the teat may get tight and cut into it. The hair ring cannot expand so as the teat fills up the ring of hair constricts it. If neglected the strangulated teat will die and you will lose that quarter or even the cow if the infection becomes serious.

If a cow gets a hair ring around a teat, confine her in a chute and carefully cut the hair ring off. Put a soothing ointment on the teat if it is raw where the ring cut into it. Clipping a hairy udder at the time of calving can help prevent this problem.


MEDICAL SUPPLIES
Ask your veterinarian about the best supplies needed to be kept on hand for emergencies. The following is a list of useful supplies:

Syringes and needles of various sizes
Stomach tube – small for calves and large of cows
Trocar used for puncturing cows with bloat
Animal thermometer
Stethoscope
Antihistamine
Dexamethasone and epinephrine – from your vet
Large suture needles and umbilical tape
Small suture needles
Injectable antibiotics as per vetinerarin recommendation
Mineral oil at least 5 liters
Castor oil 5 liters
Topical pinkeye medication
DMSO (dimethyl sulfoxide)
Intravenous kit and a lot of liters of sterile IV solution
Epsom Salts
Nitrofurazone solution or ointment
Nolvason disinfectant solution
Hydrogen peroxide
Iodine (7% tincture)
Magnet bolus

Some of these items, such as antibiotics must be kept refrigerated – check the label. Some vaccines and dewormers should not be kept for long periods, rather they should be purchased just before use.

CHAPTER 5 – GROWING AND BREEDING HEIFERS

Remember, if you have bought weaned heifers they must be fed through winter before breeding them as yearlings. You can put them out to pasture and supplement their feed, or keep them in a pen and feed them with hay.

FEEDING WEANED HEIFERS
Without proper nutrition a growing heifer will not have a proper growth rate neither will it become sexually mature before you want it to breed. However, do not overfeed them so that they become fat because fat is detrimental to future fertility.

A heifer is sufficed on green grass that provide all the nutrients necessary for a growing calf, but in the late season pasture grass may be mature and dry. Once the grass stops growing you will need to feed the heifer hay to meet its nutritional needs. If there is still grazeable grass, heifers may need only a part feed of good alfalfa hay to supply the protein and vitamins lacking in the grass. A mix of good grass hay and alfalfa is ideal if there is no pasture to graze.


Hay versus Grain:
Unless you are short of good hay do not feed grain. If heifers need grain to grow fast enough to gain proper breeding weight and sexual maturity on schedule they will not be profitable cows.

Keep your ultimate goal in mind which is creating efficient and healthy herd of cows. A heifer that is overly fat isn't as fertile as she could be and when she does become pregnant there is the possibility of calving problems because of the fatty deposits in her pelvic area. During the later stages of labor a fat heifer tires more quickly which can lead to her being unable to deliver the calf herself with out your help.

When to feed grain:
There are times when you may need to feed grain, i.e. you do not have good pasture, alfalfa hay is expensive etc. If you suffer from drought or you do not have space to pasture the heifers and can't find good hay at a good price then substitute grain for part of the ration. Feed grass hay, a little grain, and a protein supplement. When in doubt ask your vet for ration advice. 

Feeding for Growth:
When a calf is properly fed and managed after it has been weaned, heifers can continue to grow well without getting fat. If a heifer weighs 500 to 600 pounds after weaning and has a genetic potential to weigh 750 – 800 pounds at 15 months which is the breeding age, she must gain 200 – 300 pounds in the 160 days between weaning and breeding. If she is fed on good hay alone she should be able to gain 1.2 pounds to 1.8 pounds a day or even more. This is weight is easily attained by crossbred heifers during winter, however, if your hay is poor or a heifer needs more feed to grow at this rate, add a little grain to her ration but remember to start her very gradually.

Know your cattle, keep a close eye on the appearance of heifers. Watch to see if they seem full-up - that is a well rounded abdomen with no ribs showing. Growing heifers should never look empty - that is with hollow sides, and visible ribs. Evaluate the growth and fatness of heifers and feed accordingly. Do not forget the heifers need more feed as they grow and you will have to increase the amount several times over the winter but at the some time be careful not to overfeed.

The rate at which heifers gain weight during their first winter after weaning will have a big influence on their age and weight at puberty, that is when an animal matures sexually as well as their future reproductive potential. Heifers with a high rate of gain are usually heavier and younger at puberty than heifers not fed well enough to gain adequately. When heifers are small and they start cycling, the conception rate might well be poor and there is more chance of embryo death between conception and calving. An embryo is a developing calf in the first 45 days of pregnancy.

If undernourished, poorly grown heifers do become pregnant and carry their calf to full term there is the possibility that they may have problems calving as two-year olds. A difficult birth can put the calf and also the heifer's life in danger not to mention the possibility of damage to the future reproductive ability of the heifer.

If you have cows and heifers, keep the heifers in a separate pen or pasture. Heifers are unable to compete with older animals for feed and remember their nutritional requirements – especially for protein and extra energy while growing – are much greater than those of mature cows.

How to figure out a feed ration for heifers:
Hay is the usual basis for a feed ration if heifers are not on pasture. If they eat as much hay as they can this will meet their requirements. They usually eat 2.2 to 2.4% of their body weight each daily. If a heifer weighs 700 lbs this is 15.4 pounds of hay a day. A mix of grass hay and alfalfa usually has enough protein. For best feed consumption split the ration and feed morning and evening. If you do not have alfalfa then give 0.75 to 1.25 pounds of a protein supplement per heifer per day.

BREEDING TIME FOR HEIFERS:
Heifers should be bred at around the age of 15 months and will calve the following year as two-year olds. Heifers can be bred at any time after she has become sexually mature and has regular heat cycles. Most heifers reach puberty at the age of 12 months however some will cycle earlier whereas others later, especially if they are slow maturing. You should be able to see some evidence of sexual maturity as heifers grow up, they start having heat cycles and mount and "ride" one another.

Heifer fertility is based on a combination of both nutrition and genetic factors. Large framed or slow growing heifers generally reach puberty later than medium sized, fast maturing heifers. The genetics of the sire (father) and dam (mother) play a major role in a heifer's age at puberty and ability to conceive.

Fast growing, early maturing bulls – which tend to have above average scrotal size - sire daughters that reach puberty sooner than heifers sired by slow growing, late maturing bulls that often have a smaller scrotal circumference. Heifers from early maturing cows also tend to be more fertile than daughters of late maturing cows.

There are many advantages of having heifers reach puberty early. The younger a heifer starts to cycle, the better her chance of becoming pregnant and calving by the time they reach 24 months. THE AGE OF PUBERTY IS HIGHLY HERITABLE AND THIS IS AN IMPORTAT TRAIT TO LOOK FOR.

Heifers must be cycling before you put them with a bull or try to breed them by artificial insemination. They need to reach puberty ahead of the breeding seasons. SOME HEIFERS SHOW SIGNS OF HEAT BEFORE THEY ARE MATURE ENOUGH TO OVULATE, THEY LET OTHER HEIFERS OR EVEN A BULL MOUNT THEM BUT ARE NOT PRODUCING AN OVUM THEREFORE THEY DO NOT BECOME PREGNANT. Observing heifers riding each other does not mean they have reached full puberty and are ready to breed.

CONCEPTION RATE
The first heat when a heifer reaches puberty may not be as fertile as later heats. Conception rate is about 20% greater at third heat than at puberty.



WHEN TO BREED
Even though some heifers reach puberty as early as 6 – 8 months you do not want a heifer to calve before the age of 24 months. This is because they are not physically large enough to handle pregnancy and calving.

It takes 9 months of gestation to develop the calf after the heifer becomes pregnant. Keep a target weight in mind for breeding and calving this will help you to feed properly. Heifers should be at least 65% of mature body weight by breeding age. If a heifer was born in February she needs to weigh at least 65% of her eventual mature weight and have fertile heat cycles by May of the next year this is so she can be bred to calve in February the following year.

The time of year to breed heifers depends on the age of the heifers and what season you want calves to arrive. If you have mild weather you may want to calve in early spring to take advantage of summer pastures with cows that have large growing calves. If spring weather is stormy or cold you may wish to calve after the bad weather has past, unless you have a good calving barn and shelter during stormy weather. To calve in February, breed during May. To calve in March, breed in June. To calve in April, breed in July.

You may prefer to have your calves born in the autumn to take advantage of higher prices for weaned calves in the following spring. This is workable if you have mild winter or a lot of good feed for cows nursing calves through winter. A lactating cow and cold weather require a lot of feed. Or you may prefer to have them calve in January so that the calves are bigger by fall or big enough to wean early and sell before the excess of calves that go to market in late autumn.

A cow can reproduce at any time of the year, but bear in mind a cow must recover from calving before she will rebreed. This recovery period takes anywhere between 40 – 60 days.

Estrous Cycle:
After reaching puberty or after having recovered from calving, the cow/heifer begins her estrous cycle and comes into heat on average every 21 days. However cows or heifers may cycle 18 – 14 days.

The heat period usually lasts about 14 hours but can be as short as 8 hours or longer than 24 hours. THIS HEAT PERIOD IS THE ONLY TIME DURING THE 21 DAY CYCLE THAT SHE WILL ALLOW A BULL TO MATE WITH HER, AND SHE MAY ONLY ACCEPT HIM FOR PART OF THE TIME SHE IS ON HEAT. THIS TIME IS CALLED "STANDING HEAT" A FEW HOURS WHEN SHE WILL STAND STILL TO ALLOW THE BULL TO MOUNT AND BREED.

If she mates but does not conceive she will be back in heat about 21 days later, and the cycle continues until she conceives.

After becoming pregnant the heat periods cease. She will not mate again until after the calf is born and she has recovered from calving. 

Sometimes a cow or heifer has what is called a "split cycle" and returns to heat within 8 to 12 days instead of 21 days watch out for the signs of coming into heat.

Signs of Heat:
Whether or not you are going to put her with a bull or use artificial insemination you must know when she is in heat to bred her.

If she is living by herself this can be easy to determine. The signs are that she may be more restless than usual, pace the fence or bawl, or have a clear, milky, or slightly blood discharge from her vulva - which is an external opening of the vagina. However not all cows or heifers show these obvious signs.

If she is with other cattle it is easier to tell when she comes into heat because they will mount her or she will try to mount them. Hair over her tailhead and hips may be ruffled from mounting activity. She may lose patches of hair over her hips and pin bones on either side of the tail (the boney parts of the pelvis that protrude on either side of the rectum). Bull calves or steers follow her around. She may fight other cattle more than she normally does. When you except an animal is coming into heat spend at least 30 minutes twice a day to look for signs of her being on heat.

Fertilization and Pregnancy:
If she is bred by a bull he will mount her and find his proper position and deposit semen into her reproductive tract and give a jump as he ejaculates.
The cow will stand for a moment with her back humped up and tail out after he dismounts. If he mounts her but fails to successfully mate with her – that is without ejaculating semen she will not show these signs of being bred. If she has been bred she may hold her tail out for only a short time or for part of a day.

As soon as the semen is deposited the sperm cells migrate through the uterus and up the oviduct to meet the egg from the cow's ovary. The egg has been sitting in a follicle on the ovary waiting to be released during ovulation which occurs about 23 hours into the heat period. Sperm cells must undergo a 6 – 10 hour period of adjustment to be ready to unite with the egg so they have to be deposited in the cows reproductive tract ahead of ovulation this is why a cow becomes receptive to the bull and allows him to breed her fairly early in her heat period for she actually ovulates.

Gestation:
Gestation last approximately 285 days. If you know the breeding date you can ascertain within a few days when she will calve. Her calving date is usually 9 months and 7 days from the time she was bred. Most will calve within 3 – 4 days of that date but some calve in advance as much as 10 days before and some 10 days after the expected date.

Nutrition, sex of the calf, weather conditions are also factors that affect the time of calving. If there is a sharp decline in temperature this may trigger labor a day or two ahead of the due date. If a cow goes past her due date it is probable that he is going to have a bull calf.

CHOOSING THE BULL AND BREEDING THE HEIFER:
Bulls that were born easily will sire calves that will also be born easily. When buying a bull check it's birth. The principle matter for a heifer's first calf is a good bull that sires calves that are either streamlined or small at birth. Calf size is for the most part determined by genetics. If a heifer was large at birth, her calves will probably be large also, but if she is bred to a bull who was small or streamlines at birth and sires calves with the same trait, there is a good chance the calf will have reasonable birth weight. Do not breed heifers to a bull that sires calves that are large or thick-bodied – that is heavily muscled or thick through shoulders and hips – because you will have calving problems.

The danger is that a calf too large to come through the birth canal, even with pulling by you, must be delivered by caesarean section performed by a vet who cuts through the cow's abdomen and into the uterus to deliver the calf and thereafter having its mother sewn up – this type of birth is risky for both mother and calf.

On the other hand if you just have a few heifers, you might consider taking them to a farm or breeder and leave them to be bred, but makes sure the bull sires well.

You may prefer to breed a group of heifers on your own farm. If you do not have a bull then you have the option to either lease a bull or borrow one, but once again make sure he is healthy and with no venereal disease otherwise the disease might be spread to your heifers. If is a good idea to have your vet check the proposed bull before introducing it to your heifers. Bulls most at risk are ones that have been breeding a variety of cows – especially purchased cows with unknown background. Another consideration is a bull that has only been used on virgin heifers. 

Artificial insemination:
If you select to breed your heifers through artificial insemination you will need a chute to restrain the heifer so that the technician (AI) can insert a capsule of semen into her uterus. You must watch her closely to know when she might be coming into heat. Speak with your AI technician before the time arrives and ask his advice on what you need to do and when to order the semen. When ordering the semen stress that you want it from a bull that sires low birth weight calves and ask to be shown the bulls records to help you make your selection.

Collection of semen:
A bull used for AI can sire hundreds of calves. The ejected semen is collected and then divided into many small portions, stored in tubes called straws. Then frozen and stored in liquid nitrogen. Frozen semen can be stored almost indefinitely and shipped anywhere. When your AI technician breeds your cow or heifer he thaws the straws for 30 seconds and then inserts it into the uterus.

NUTRITION FOR PREGNANT YEARLING
Now that your heifers have been bred, remember that they need adequate nutrition so that they keep growing and also to provide for the developing calf. For the first 6 months of pregnancy the growing fetus makes little demand on the mother's body; she does not need extra nutrition beyond her own needs for growth, good green pasture will provide all she needs. If you have pasture through summer this will be sufficient for pregnant yearlings but do not forget their need for water and salt. When spring is late and the grass has not reached grazeable stage, heifers may need hay for a while at the time of breeding until the pastures are ready.

Hay:
During the autumn and winter, pregnant heifers may need to be fed on hay as soon as grass is no longer sufficient. Part of the ration should be alfalfa that will provide protein needed by the growing heifer and her developing fetus. Most pregnant beef heifers do not need grain unless the weather becomes very cold for long periods or the hay is not of very good quality.

Make sure pregnant heifers have sufficient protein, calcium and vitamin A during the last trimester when the fetus grows fastest. If the heifer does not get enough protein she can't create good colostrums i.e. the first milk – for her calf. Underdeveloped, small calves born to thin mothers may be too weak to stand up and nurse after birth. Good alfalfa hay during the last trimester of pregnancy ensures a strong, well-developed, healthy calf. In the event good alfalfa hay is unavailable, use a protein and vitamin supplement. A good general rule for feeding pregnant heifers is to feed all the good hay they will clean up, that is a mix of grass and alfalfa. Grass hay provides most of the roughage and nutrients needed, while alfalfa gives the extra protein, calcium and vitamin A.

Cold weather:
To maintain body warmth in cold weather a heifer needs more feed. If you observe them cleaning up hay well increase the amount – especially the grass portion because it creates heat during digestion. If the weather turns extremely cold you can feed a little grain to ensure the continued growth of heifers.

Mature cows do fine in cold weather with all the hay they can eat.

CHAPTER 6 – CARE OF PREGNANT COW
There are several things that may go wrong in pregnant cows, some of them are common and other not so therefore it is best to know about them so that you can prevent them or get proper treatment for your cow. Some result in abortion, birth defects, calving difficult, or subsequently infertility. 

Abortion:
Abortion is the expulsion of a premature live fetus before it reaches a viable stage of life, or expulsion of a dead fetus at any stage of gestation. Many early abortions take place without being noticed; the embryo or fetus isn't large enough to be seen easily.

In a cow, abortions before the 5th month often have little external signs and are seldom followed by retained placenta. But abortions after the fifth month are often accompanied by retained placenta as the cow fails to shed the fetal membranes for several days after losing the fetus. Later term abortions are more noticeable, the cow has membranes hanging out from the vulva.

Most abortions occur during the last trimester, but it's not always easy to determine the cause. Some abortions of unidentified cause are due to hormone imbalances or steroid release within the body due to stress. Any severe stress can trigger the release of hormones that start premature labor. Usually when a cow aborts after injury it is stress from pain, or inflammation etc., that triggers the abortion rather than the injury itself. The uterus and its fluids cushion the fetus well and protect it from trauma, even if the cow herself is seriously injured.

An injection of dexamethasone during late pregnancy often causes the cow to go into labor and the calf is born too early to survive. Dexamethasone is sometimes given to reduce swelling, inflammation and pain from injury or disease, snakebite or other problems. NEVER GIVE DEXAMETHASONE TO ANY PREGANT COW, ESPECIALLY IN THE LAST TRIMESTER OF GESTATION.

High fever may also result in abortion, as can poisons such as iodine. Sodium iodide – sometime given intravenously to treat boney lump jaw should not be given to a pregnant cow. Flushing out an abscess with iodine solution may also be unwise. It is better to play safe and use a less toxic disinfectant or antiseptic solution.

Moldy hay or silage can also cause abortion. Silage is feed cut and stored green, and preserved by fermentation. Some types of mold are deadly to the fetus during the third through seventh months of gestation. Molds of the Aspergillum family usually cause abortion during the last trimester. Molds are thought to cause between 3 and 10% of all abortions in cattle. IF FEED IS MOLDY IT SHOULD NOT BE FED TO A PREGNANT COW.

Infections are the cause of most late term abortions. Under normal condition about 1 out of every 200 cows will abort for some reason or another. If abortion rate in a herd rises above 1 or 2% of the herd there is a chance that infection or disease is involved. Some diseases are preventable through vaccines whereas other cannot.

Brucellosis – Bangs disease - is the most common cause of abortion in cattle worldwide, IT CAN BE PREVENTED THROUGH VACCINES. Brucellosis is a threat to HUMANS AS WELL, IT CAUSES AMONGST OTHER SYMPTOMS EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCES AND ATTACKS THE CENTRAL AND OPTIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. DO NOT BUY FEMALE COWS THAT DID NOT HAVE THEIR VACCINATIONS DURING THEIR CALF PERIOD. VACCINATED ALL HEIFER CALVES WITH THE PROPER AGE LIMIT I.E. BEFORE 10 MONTHS OF AGE. 

Leptospirosis is amongst one of the most common cause of infectious abortion in cattle. It is caused by bacteria that affect many kinds of animals as well as humans. The bacteria are spread by the urine of sick and carrier animals contaminating feed and water. The bacteria enter the cow through breaks in the skin on feet and legs when walking in contaminated water, or through the nose, mouth, or eyes by contact with contaminated feed, water or urine. Lepto bacteria affect unborn calves. If a cow gets Lepto during the last half of gestation she will likely abort 1 to 3 weeks after recovering from the acute stage of the disease – even if the cow did not look sick she may abort. Abortions caused through Lepto often cause infection of the uterus and retained placenta, however cows usually recover and breed again. Not all infected cows abort, sometimes a cow gives birth to a live but weak calf that dies within a few days. There is a vaccine against 5 of the most common types of Lepto that cause abortion in cows and gives immunity for approximately 6 months. For good protection cows should be vaccinated twice a year, since Lepto can cause abortion at any stage of pregnancy.

IBR infectious bovine rhinotracheitis – often called "red nose" in the third trimester is another cause of abortion. It causes upper respiratory disease with fever, lack of appetite, nasal discharge, reddened nasal membranes, coughing, ulcers in the nose, throat and windpipe. It can also lead to secondary pneumonia. If a cow is inflected with IBR the virus may well infect the fetus and cause abortion. IBR can occur at anytime during gestation but is most common in the 2nd half. Cows may or may not show signs of IBR, often, the only evidence in adult cattle is the aborted fetuses. Abortions may occur several days or even weeks after the actual infection.

BVD – bovine virus diarrhea causes abortion or mummification of fetus – that is the fetus dies but is not expelled and remains encapsulated in the uterus. If calves are carried to full term they are born with abnormalities, i.e. eye lesions, partial hairlessness etc. AN INTRANASAL VACCINE IS SAFE FOR PREGNANT COWS OR CALVES NURSING FROM PREGNANT COWS – MODIFIED LIVE-VIRUS INJECTION MAY CAUSE COWS TO ABORT AND OCCUR 2 – 10 WEEKS AFTER THE INJECTION.

Listerosis is amongst the causes of abortion. It is transmitted from bacteria carried by rodents and other animals. There is no way to prevent it by vaccination. However, the good news is that it is uncommon.

Venereal diseases can cause abortion and is transmitted by an infected bull at the time of breeding. The infection causes death of the embryo early in pregnancy. There are times when the embryo dies so early that the cow returns to heat and you think she did not conceive, but in some cases the fetus is carried for a few months and then aborted. These diseases can be prevented by vaccinating cows and making sure the bull is not infected. Bulls can be carriers for several years. 

Trichomoniasis causes abortion and is spread by infected bulls. The disease occasionally causes late term abortions, but it is most common for her to abort in the first 90 days. There is the possibility that an infected cow will not breed again.

Locoweed, lupine, broomweed, ponderosa pine needles can cause abortions or birth defects. Abortion may occur as early as 48 hours after a cow eats pine needles, but some cows abort 2 weeks later. A cow might deliver a live calf if she is near the end of her pregnancy, however, cows aborting of having eaten even just a few pine needles retain the placenta. Some abortions may be complicated by weak uterine contractions, excessive bleeding, and incomplete dilation of the cervix, which is the opening between the uterus and vagina that is usually sealed, the fetus may not be properly expelled. Some cows develop toxemia and die before or shortly after the abortion unless given prompt treatment.

Other problems that may occur in pregnancy:
Usually a cow carries her calf to full term without having problems, but there are occasions when something kills the fetus and it is not expelled. Serious infection in the uterus may occur when the fetus dies after the first trimester and is not expelled. The cow may start discharging puss or fragments of the rotting fetus, when this is the case call your vet to examine the cow. What has happened is the cow has tried to abort a dead fetus, but the cervix did not dilate enough for it to pass through, or the fetus was in an abnormal position and could not come through.

If the cervix opens when the fetus dies, bacteria enter the uterus and the dead fetus is invaded by the pathogens and begins to decay. Usually the cow shows signs of intermittent straining for several days and develops a foul smelling discharge, she may also have a fever and go off her feed. She needs to be treated with antibiotics, and the decaying fetal material may have to be removed by the vet. If the rotting tissues can be safely removed and the infection cleared up she may recover and rebreed after a few months. But a serious infection from this type of abortion can be fatal to the cow so do not delay in calling your vet if you suspect a problem.
FETAL DEATH AFTER THE FIRST TRIMESTER
Such a death does not always result in abortion or decomposition. When the cervix does not open and no infection enters the uterus, the fetus does not decay, the placental and fetal fluids are reabsorbed by the uterus and the fetus dries out and then mummifies. This has been known to happen with twins, one fetus dies whereas the other continues to develop. The live calf is usually born normally when it reaches its full term, and it is at that time the mummified calf is discovered. It is more usual that the dead calf is single and not a twin and due to a hormonal imbalance the uterus continues on as if pregnant with the cervix remaining closed, the dead fetus is not expelled. The uterus contracts and tightly encloses the fetus. The longer the condition exists, the drier, firmer and more leather like the fetus becomes.

The mummified fetus may remain in the uterus for months beyond normal gestation time or it may be expelled shortly before the expected end of the pregnancy. If you have a cow that appears to be pregnant after having been bred and the cessation of her heat cycles but approaches calving time with no evidence of being ready to calve and shows no signs of readiness i.e. no udder development, no relaxation of vulva etc., call your vet, and if she has a mummified fetus the vet can induce labor to expel it.

Hydrops amnii is the production of too much fluid around the fetus, and can occasionally occur in cows. The cow's belly may become large before it is time to calve. This condition is sometimes due to genetic abnormality resulting in a defective fetus. In severe cases the cow does not survive unless the pregnancy is terminated early. If you have a cow that looks as if it is going to have triplets, call your vet to examine her. In some cases labor must be induced and the thickened fetal membranes manually broken.

Prolapse of the vagina is a more common problem in pregnant cows and occurs a few weeks or even a month or more before calving. Some cows, especially Herefords, have a structural weakness that allows part of the vagina to prolapse during late pregnancy – this is an inherited problem and may be passed on by bulls that sire daughters that pass this tendency to their calves.

The primary cause of vaginal prolapse is pressure and weight of the large uterus in late pregnancy. When a cow lies down this pressure may cause vaginal tissue to prolapse. She may pass manure while lying there and strain a few times, and the tissue bulges out.

A mild prolapse is a bulge the size of an orange or grapefruit and usually retracts when the cow gets up. However, if she prolapses each time she lies down or strains, the tissue may be forced out still farther. Even a small prolapse may stimulate the cow to strain and this makes the situation worse, she has a mass of tissue bulging out, that becomes damaged, direct and quite possibly infected.

Because the vaginal wall is not a sterile environment infection is not the primary concern. The problem is that once these tissues are turned inside out, blood supply from the prolapsed area becomes restricted and makes the tissue swell. The longer it protrudes outside the body the more it swells and is harder to be put back. If the cow is approaching the time of calving, this swelling may make birthing more difficult. A VAGINAL PROLAPSE SHOULD BE      PUSHED BACK AS SOON AS POSSIBLE, EVEN THOUGH THE CONDITION ITSELF IS NOT LIFE-THREATENING.

If the prolapse is large i.e. the size of a volleyball, the bladder may become involved causing inability to urinate until the prolapsed tissue is pushed back inside, she may strain to urinate and this will aggravate the problem still further.

If you find she has had a prolapse for several hours it will be covered in manure which should be washed away before being pushed back, if this is not done there is the risk of irritation from contamination that will cause inflammation and infection. When pushing the prolapse back in, restrain the cow in a chute, wash the prolapsed tissue very gently with warm slightly disinfected water such as Nolvasan. Rinse it thoroughly and then push it back in. In the event the prolapse has been out for more than a day before you noticed it, the tissues may be dry and dirty which will be harder to clean up and push back in.

Do not mistake the bulge of pink vaginal issue for an amnion sac (a fluid filled membrane enclosing the calf at birth) which can happen when you check on your cows ready for calving late at night. The amnion is a thin membrane filled with clear fluid and encases the calf being born. If you are in the habit of slicing this sac to prevent suffocation of the calf at birth when the sac refuses to break, take care of what you are slicing.

Some cows repeatedly prolapse the vagina each calving season during late pregnancy, even after the tissues are replaced. Put stitches across the vagina to hold it in after you have cleaned up the protruding ball of tissue and pushed it back, this will correct the problem. If you don't want to do this your vet will do it using a large, curved suture needle and umbilical tape which is less apt to pull out than regular suture thread. Stitches should be anchored in the haired skin at the sides of the vulva where the skin is thick and tough and won't tear out as easily as the skin of the vulva, it is also less sensitive and less painful to remove later on. Three cross-stitches keep the vulva safely closed and prevent the inner tissue from prolapse if she strains. The cow can then urinate through the stitches, but the vulva cannot open enough to prolapse.

When the cow starts to calve the stitches must be removed at the onset of labor or she will tear them out or have difficulty calving. Cut them with surgical scissors, tin snips, a very sharp knife or whatever you have on hand to cut them quickly and easily without poking the cow.

As soon as she has calved, the pressure that caused the prolapse will no longer exist and she most likely will have no further problems until the next pregnancy. Most owners cull a cow once she has prolapsed. However if she is a gentle cow, not difficult to work with, and has really good calves, you might decided to keep her and be prepared for coping with future prolapses. HOWEVER, THE CALVES OF SUCH A COW SHOULD NEVER BE KEPT FOR BREEDING, BECAUSE THEY WILL MOST LIKELY INHERIT THIS STRUCTURAL WEAKNESS.

CHAPTER 7 - CALVING
This is the time you have been waiting for so be prepared for calving. Have all the proper facilities and supplies easy at hand to ensure less risk for the cow and her calf. 

Preparation:
Plan where you want your cow to calve. If the weather is warm, a clean grassy pasture is a nice place for calving and is not likely to be contaminated with bacteria as it would be in a barnyard or corral, thereby avoiding naval infection. Be on the look out for hazards, if a cow lies down next to a ditch, pond or even a large puddle of water when she goes into labor there is the danger that the calve may drown. Even a dry ditch can cause a problem if the cow lies down in it and she cannot right herself. Whether she is flat on her side and gets a little on her back, it may be impossible for her to get up, she may bloat and then suffocate. If the pasture is very large a cow about to calve may go to the far end or hide in the hedges, seeking a safe and secluded place to give birth.

It is a good idea to have heifers in a place where you can check on them 24 hours a day when they are about to calve. A first time heifer might need help birthing, and you also want to make sure she mothers the calf and nurses it soon after birth. A small pasture close to your house is ideal where you can easily monitor them day and night. IT IS IMPORTANT TO BE THERE FOR EVERY BIRTHING.

Most calves are born head first. The awaited calf may not be in the right position when the time for birthing arrives and has to be corrected. A backward calf, i.e. hind feet first, or one born with the amnion sac still right over its head need your full attention so be ready to give assistance if needed. 

Summer calving:
If your cows are going to calve in the summer and do not need a barn, you should have a pen where you can catch a cow if she needs help. It should be a small pen so you can get a halter on her to tie her up, or a chute or a head catcher at one end where you can capture her to restrain her during delivery. If you do not have a chute or head-catcher a swinging panel securely fastened to a corral post will do if positioned where you can corner her behind it. 


Hot weather calving:
When your cows calve during hot weather make sure to provide shade for the cows and their newly born. If there is natural shade such as shade tree where they are calving so much the better. Severely hot weather is stressful to a cow in labor and also her newborn. If possible aim for your calving season when it is neither too hot nor too cold 

Wet weather calving:
In wet weather you may want a shed with dry bedding, because it is much cleaner and safer that out in a wet, muddy corral and much easier on the newborn calf if it is born in a downpour!
 
Early spring calving:
If your cows are going to calve in early spring you will need a calving barn, which is a shelter to keep calving cows and their newborns out of the wind and cold. The barn should be adequate to accommodate all the cows at once in case they all decide to deliver at the same time! Individual stalls for each pair are better than having several calving cows together because it eliminates the risk of mix-ups, or bossier cows injuring another's calf. 

Cold weather calving:
The body heat of a cow keeps the barn reasonably warm in cold weather, however, if temperatures drop to 20 degrees Fahrenheit inside the barn you may need to dry a new calf with towels before it gets too cold to stand up and nurse. CALVES NEED TO BE UP AND NURSING WITHIN 30 MINUTES TO AN HOUR AFTER BIRTH TO GET FUL BENEFIT FROM ANTIBODIES IN COLOSTRUM AND TO GET QUICK ENERGY FROM THE CREAMY FAT. Once they have nursed they are better able to stay warm. If the temperature drops to be 20 degrees Fahrenheit, ears or tails may freeze and a calf's mouth may become too cold for him to nurse.

If you calve during a cold spell you may be tempted to leave the pair in the barn for a while, however, they can do fine outside by the second day if you have a sheltered area in the pen or pasture where calves can be protected from wind and bad weather. A couple of small, sheltered pens with a windbreak corn can be an ideal place if the cow and calve is not quite ready for the big pasture. To make a simple wind break you need a sheet or two of plywood. If you have two or three pens next to each other, the windbreak from one pen serves as a windbreak on the backside of the next pen making a shelter on three sides. Calves soon learn to use the sunny sheltered corners bedded with straw. The plywood reflects heat from the sun and at night, 
calves usually bed in these corners with its mother lying in front of her calf to keep him warm. The idea of sheltered pens on the second day has another advantage, it helps both cow and calf to know each other and lessens mix-ups and confusion.

In very cold or windy weather a calf has trouble maintaining its body temperature. Check to make sure he has a dry, sheltered place in which to sleep. Some over protective mothers take her calf to the far side of the pasture to hide him, and he may end up in snow or mud, therefore leave the mother and calf in a smaller pen for a couple of days. If you can't get a cow to go to the pen, make a sheltered corner for her there with a windbreak and straw bedding for the calf. Put a pole across the corner so the calf can crawl under but not the mother, this way there is no risk of a mother lying on her calf.

When a calf learns about straw bedding and a windbreak in the smaller pen, he will be more apt to use a bedding area or calf house in the larger pasture when you turn the pair of them out. 

Stalls:
Stalls can be made up of panels to partition barn space into several sections – make movable partitions from poles, boards, or metal gates. You can convert an existing building, i.e. a shed, garage, old chicken house, or build an inexpensive barn by using poles, logs or straw bales. 

A pole barn can be built with tall posts set deeply into the ground. Walls can be rough lumber or pole and particleboard. Roof rafter can be lumber or poles that support a galvanized metal roof. If you live in a snowy area, the roof should slope so that the snow will slide off rather than build up and collapse. You may want windows for light and solar heat.

Large straw bales or even small ones stacked up can make sides for a calving barn if you have a pole structure and roof. Straw is an excellent insulation, and panels or poles keep cows from eating or rubbing on the bales. Another solution is that of chipboard sheets with wood-shavings between them to make a water-proof wall if you cover the outside wall with rough-cut slabs, metal, or even a tarp to protect it from moisture.

If you have sufficient space in your barn, create an alley between rows of stalls. You can have 4 or 6 stalls, each row of stalls being an alley itself if the stalls are made of moveable panels.

Stalls should have enough room so a cow won't get into trouble lying against the wall, it should also have enough room for you to work with a calf-puller if needed. Stalls 12 by 12 feet are minimum, 12 by 14 feet is better. If panels are moveable rather than solid partitions, this can give some leeway if you have a tight situation when using a calf-puller or have a cow lying too close to the wall. Another advantage of moveable partitions is that you can catch a cow behind one, pushing it tightly against her, with a rope behind her holding the panel so that she is unable to back-up. If this is the situation then you do not have to tie her up or take her to a head-catcher or chute for checking, or correcting a backward position birth or pulling the calf. Just swing the panel away when finished or if she goes down. 

When making panels for the stalls, make the bottom half solid by using plywood or boards so that a calf cannot stick its head through and get hit by an aggressive cow in the next stall.

Stall maintenance:
Stalls should be clean. Use lots of clean bedding to reduce the risk of infection. If the stall is not clean manure can get on the udder and the calf will then have a dirty udder to nurse from. 

Do not leave the mother and calf in the barn longer than 24 hours, put them in a clean pen or small pasture after the calf is dry and has nursed several times and the two have bonded together. Do not leave them in a dirty pen, otherwise diarrhea or pneumonia might occur and contaminate the next stall. 

If a calf is sick do not put it in the calving barn, use another pen or shelter, to avoid risk to others.

Clean the stalls out so each cow has new clean bedding. Wood shavings can be used but they are not as warm as straw in cold weather and also they will stick to the new calf. Clean straw makes the best bedding, however it should be dry, but not dusty, and on no accounts moldy. Dust and mold can give a calf respiratory problems and also be dangerous to yourself.

If the weather is extremely cold, you can get by without cleaning the stalls if you put clean bedding on top for each new cow. The build up of old bedding and manure helps to keep the barn warmer, however if the weather warms up the stalls need to be cleaned out. NEVER HAVE A COW OR CALF IN A WET, DIRTY STALL.

}Calf houses:
Calf houses/shelters can be built from lumber, old straw bales etc. The shelters can remain as a permanent structure or built on runners that can be pulled with a pickup or tractor to a new location. Choose a dry spot with an opening away from winds, and bed them often with clean straw or hay. Use pole panels or electric fence to keep cows away from the front of the house. Calves will stay inside when the weather is cold and only come out to nurse – they know what is best for them!

HOW TO BUILD SIMPLE PORTABLE HOUSING
To make a simple durable house that can be moved – make sure it is small enough to go through your gates – that is an 8 foot x 16 foot construction with a sloping metal roof and floor. The advantage of a metal floor is that it keeps calves out of the mud and melting snow runoff, and it gives the structure more strength and stability when its time to be moved. It will never blow over in strong winds. You will need large poles of 2 inch x 6 inch boards that can be used for the runners. Leave a small space about half an inch between floorboards so moisture from urine can easily run down through.

The house can be moved periodically to a clean location, but contamination is not a problem if you put clean bedding in and around it regularly. A shelter greatly outweighs any problems caused by congregating the calves.

If you plan to move the house with a pickup or tractor during cold weather, when runners are apt to freeze to the ground, place a few boards under the runners so you can pry them loose.

HOW TO HANDLE COWS AT CALVING TIME
It is usual for a cow to go off by herself to calve. It is best to be with the cow when she calves in case they need a helping hand. You can eliminate most birth losses if you are there for every birth.

Treat and speak to your heifers gently before they calve, the more they see you around, the more they will accept you. As their time approaches to calve put them in a place where you are able to walk through them several times a day and night to check on them, they get used to you and it becomes part of their routine, and remain peaceful, also their calves are not afraid of you. At night-time take a flashlight to check on them  

It will be easier for you to have your heifers in a nearby pen before calving. If one calves early you can see her whereas if she is in a big pasture – where you run the risk of losing her calf on a cold, dark night – it is not so convenient.

If you decided to calf your heifers in a barn, get them used to it beforehand. Let them feed on hay next to the barn and leave the doors open and feed a few flakes of good hay inside the barn to lure them in.  It is ideal to let them eat inside the barn a couple of times so it is not strange to them and take along a gentle cow or several heifers together as a small herd. There is safety in numbers, the group will stay calmer and be easier to move especially if they have been fed hay in there earlier. Once you get the heifer inside let the rest back out. If the calving heifer is nervous then leave another in the next stall to keep her company until she calves. Established trust between you and your heifers is much to be desired, especially if you have to help one calve or correct a hind feet-first birth (malpresentation) and approach her from behind while she is in labor. This is better than having to tie her up or restrain her in a chute. If you keep the atmosphere calm them the heifer is more likely to be attentive to her calf after birth.

If the calf is large and she is not making progress, slip into the stall or pen and put the chain on the calf while she is straining. Even with a timid heifer, if you an get chains on the calf's legs and start pulling she will usually settle back down and start straining again rather than jumping up to run around the pen or stall, this is because your pulling stimulates her to strain. If a heifer does jump up, you can keep up with her in a barn stall if you already have chains on the calf's legs. Soon she will stand still and strain, especially if there is someone on hand to come into the stall and keep her from circling. More often than not the heifer will lie down again once she resumes straining.

SUGGESTED SUPPLIES TO BE ON HAND DURING CALVING
Halter and rope, just in case you need to tie up a cow
Disposable obstetrical gloves
Lubricant disinfectant soap in a squeeze bottle
Plastic bucket for wash water
Clean obstetrical chains and handles for pulling a calf
Mechanical calf-puller kept in a handy place so that you can grab it quickly
Strong iodine (7% tincture) for dipping a calf's navel stump
Towels and hair drier for drying a calf, a heat lamp
Bottle and lamb nipple, in case you have to feed a calf
Stomach tube or esophageal feeder for a calf unable to nurse
Flashlights for checking cows at night, extra batteries
Injectable antibiotics recommend by your vet
Syringes and needles, vaccine for new calves, Sours (diarrhea) medications
Your vet's telephone number
Suction bulb for artificial respiration
Shovel to prevent a cow choking on the afterbirth.

SIGNS OF THE APPROACHING TIME TO CALVE
As the cow/heifer approaches the end of gestation and gets ready to calve, there will be obvious changes in her body. Most cows or heifers get larger and saggier in the abdomen, and the udder starts to fill. Udder development may begin as much as a month before her due date – especially with heifers, or even a few days before calving.

Some heifers develop so much swelling around the udder that fluid collects at the lower part of the abdomen, creating an enlargement that might look like an injury or a hernia. Sometimes there is so much swelling in the mammary tissue the udder is hard and sore by the time she calves. At the other extreme are the older cows that don't make any udder until a few hours before calving.

Muscles at either side of the tail begin to relax a few days or weeks ahead of calving, and muscles around the vulva become saggy and floppy. There may be a clear discharge from the vagina.

A cow or heifer may look ready to calve for several days before she goes into labor, or she may make these changes in the last few hours. 

One sign that she will calve within 12 to 24 hours is when the teats fill up. She may have a dull udder for a while, but the teats generally do not fill up until she is nearly ready to calve.

SIGNS OF LABOR
When she starts the early stages of labor you may find that she becomes more restless and alert. The cervix begins to open and uterine contractions begin. These contractions help position the fetus headfirst – that is with front feet extended. As the contractions occur the cow will show discomfort, she will kick her belly, switch her tail, get up and down, glancing to the rear, or pacing the fence. Between contractions she may continue eating or chewing her cud; if you don't see her during one of her contractions you might not think she is in fact in the early stages of labor.

As we mentioned later on and discuss how to deal with the situation, a cow/heifer may leave the herd and go off by herself to calve to the far end of the pasture or pace up and down the corral fence trying to get out. Other cows/heifers are more placid and unconcerned. Sometimes the only clue a cow is calving is her heightened alertness – what she is doing is instinctively watching for predators that might harm the calf she is about to deliver.

BIRTH OF THE CALF
It is important to be there for every birth if you want to save every calf. If you must be away for part of the day, enlist the help of a friend or neighbor to check the cows periodically to avoid such disasters as a cow lying in a ditch, having a calf being born backwards without assistance, laboring in vain to deliver a malpresented calf, a first time heifer not mothering her calf, the amnion sac not breaking and the subsequent suffocation of the calf. Most calves are born normally, and healthy at the start of the birth process. They are only lost when help was not available at the proper time.

Active labor begins when the calf enters the birth canal. This occurs when the cervix is dilated enough for feet to start coming through. As soon as any portion of the calf enters the birth canal this stimulates the cow and she begins to strain hard. Some of the membrane and fluids that surround the calf are pushed through the birth canal ahead of it – this water bag more often breaks at the beginning of active labor, it is reddish-purple in color and filled with dark yellow fluid and rushes out, or it may protrude in the vulva intact. (The amnion sac is white and its fluid more clear). But the cow may not "break her water" at the start of active labor, there are times when the water bag comes with the calf or even after it. 

The best way to tell if this final stage of labor has begun is by the cow's straining. Uterine contractions and abdominal straining push the calf out of the uterus and through the birth canal to the world outside. During early labor the cow was quite mobile, however during this stage she wants to lie down and push the calf out. 

As the calf comes through the birth canal a second fluid sac appears – this is the amnion sac that encloses the calf – as soon as you see the calf's front feet within the sac you can break it, to make sure the calf won't drown or suffocate after birth.

If the calf is in the normal position and is not too large, the birth process does not take long, more so in an older cow. From the time she begins hard straining until the calf is fully born may be just be a few minutes. Any time a cow or heifer takes longer than an hour to deliver her calf – that is from the time the feet begin to protrude from the vulva – she should have assistance.

In a normal birth the calf's head appears soon after the front feet protrude. With a few hard strains the cow passes the head and the body soon follows with the amnion sac usually breaking as the calf comes out. The calf may lie there for a moment, shake his head to clear fluid from his nose and start breathing. The cow may rest a little or get up to start licking her calf, this is instinctive to dry him so he won't get a chill. Her licking increases his circulation and stimulates him to breathe. If the sac is still over his head she licks it off, unless she starts licking the other end first. A calf being licked will most likely try to get up immediately and look for the udder.

The last stage of labor is the shedding of the placenta i.e. the afterbirth. Even though the calf has been delivered the cow continues to have contractions until the membranes which are covered with "red buttons" that attached to the uterus come loose. The placenta works its way though the birth canal and when the cow gets up it may hang down from the vulva and may take either a few minutes of even several hours to work free.

Most cows shed the placenta within 2 to 8 hours, but some take much longer. NEVER TRY TO REMOVE IT, EVEN IF THE COW IS SLOW TO SHED IT. There will be less risk of complication and infection if you leave it alone, with the weight of the hanging-down tissue keeping mild tension on the membranes as they separate from the uterine lining.

MINIMIZING CALVING PROBLEMS
First-time heifers generally need more assistance than cows. Heifers have not yet attained full growth and are smaller in the pelvic area than mature cows. Even an easy calving cow may have problems if the calf is not entering the birth canal properly, so the golden rule is to be watchful.

Assisting in the Calving process
If you are watching the cow or heifer, you will know when she begins early labor and when she starts active labor. However, her waters may break. If she does not begin hard labor, or the calf is too large to progress through the birth canal or is in the wrong position and unable to start through and if she does not start active labor within 2 or 3 hours of breaking her water check inside to see what the problem might be.

There are times when the fluid in the amnion sac is yellow-brown and thick and this is an indication that the calf is undergoing a difficult birth or has taken a long time to get into position. The calf may be short on oxygen if the placenta has started to detach. The dirty-brown color is from the calf defecating during the birth process – if this occurs it is usually a sign that the calf is stressed too much. If the amnion sac and/or the feet appear at the vulva and the cow or heifer isn't making any progress, it is time for you to help. It is usually safe to allow her to strain for awhile because the tissues must stretch. The cervix has to be fully dilated so that the calf's head is completely through it before you start pulling on the feet. If you pull too soon, you might injure the cow and the calf.

However, do not wait too long to help because the cow will be exhausted and the calf will become more stressed from being in the birth canal too long. A good general rule is to give a cow or heifer an hour from when you see feet start to show. If she is making visible progress at the end of that time, with the calf's forehead coming through the vulva, let her finish the delivery herself  - once the head comes through, the birth usually progresses. But if it's just feet and nose showing after an hour of labor, its time for you to help.

ASSISTING WITH CHAINS
If the feet and nose are showing, you can attach the chain and pull the calf without having to check inside the birth canal. If you have to reach in for any reason i.e. to check for a foot or to see if the head is coming or too large to come easily – the cow should be restrained and you must ensure your hands are clean. Wash them with a germicidal soap and rinse the genital area of the cow also.

If the calf is present properly and the cow is working hard at pushing him out, she will be on the ground in hard labor and not likely to get up. You may be able to sneak up behind her to attach chains to the calf's leg and start pulling. The time to pull is when the cow strains and then rest when she rests.

Use clean obstetrical chains and attach them above the fetlock joints. If you are pulling by hand, one loop is adequate because you won't be exerting enough pressure to damage the legs and joints. Make sure the loop is above the joint, above the dewclaws which is the horny structure on the lower leg above the hoof, around the leg bone above the big joint, with the pull coming from underneath the joint. Do not put the chain just above the hoof (pastern) or you may damage the hoof or even pull it off. 

ASSISTING WITH CALF-PULLER
Most heifers only need a minimal amount of assistance and calf pullers are only used if required. If you do need to pull, then the strength of one or two people is adequate.

If you need to pull a calf, remember he has to come in an arc, up over the cow's pelvis. When his feet are coming out through the vulva and you start to pull him, pull straight out. But, after you get his head, shoulders and ribcage you, you should pull downward toward the cow's hocks, which is the large joint halfway up the hind leg. If you watch normal, unassisted births, you will see how the calf curves around toward the cow's hocks and feet as he slides out. This same action is what you need to duplicate when pulling a calf for easiest delivery.

The less you use a calf-puller, the better. But sometimes a puller makes the difference or whether or not the calf is born alive, especially when time is a critical factor, as with a backward calf (hind feet first). It is wise to buy a good calf-puller and don't forget to keep it handy – it may hang there for years without being needed, but it will be there in an emergency. Don't forget to learn how to use it properly, otherwise the calves you deliver can have broken leg bones fractured by improper use of a calf puller.

How to use a calf-puller:
First: Position the puller correctly with the breech spanner against the cows' hindquarters below the vulva and the holding loop over backbone to keep it in place. Put chains on the calf's legs properly. A single loop above the fetlock joint may be adequate when pulling by hand, but it is never adequate when using a calf puller because of the risk of fracturing a leg. When using a calf puller, put a double loop on each leg. The first loop should go above the fetlock joint with a half-hitch round the calf's pastern (hoof).

Second: Take a few seconds to make a double loop – this can save weeks of recuperation for the calf. A single loop may pull at an awkward angel or put too much stress on one spot, causing joint or fractured bones. Double looping puts a straight pull on the leg and less chance for a break. Direction of pull should be from the bottom, pulling from the top may put twisting stress on the leg. 

Third: Put chain ends on each leg separately. Tie a knot in the portion between the legs, at proper space for attaching the hook for the puller's cable. Take the slack out of the cable with the ratchet and begin to pull the calf.

Fourth: After the chains are properly on the calf's legs, shorten the puller or extend its cable as much as possible for maximum leeway for pulling. This is especially important if the calf is coming backward. There is nothing more alarming as the sudden realization you have run out of pulling room when the calf's shoulders and head are still inside the cow, because at this point its almost impossible to reset the puller and extract the calf before he suffocates.


Fifth: When ready to pull the calf, bring the puller into position straight out from the cow. After taking up all available slack, slowly bring the end of the puller down toward the level of the cow's feet as far as possible. Then lift it back up to the original position winching the slack you gained, and repeat the process until the calf's head pops out (or in the case of hind legs coming first, hips). Then use the winching properties of the puller to get the calf out.

IMPORTANT:
There is a misconception regarding calf pullers that they are just winches to apply more pressure to the calf. The puller is designed to be used as a lever, also allowing you to keep whatever progress the cow has made from slipping back. The most important aspect of the puller's use comes from its up and down motion.

SITUATIONS THAT MAY REQUIRE SPECIAL ASSISTANCE
These include a calf being too big, or the hymen may be constricting the calf's passage.

The question arises is the calf too big to be pulled. If you see feet but no head, and the head does not soon appear, the calf is probably a tight fit coming through the pelvis. Put chains on his legs if you wish, to keep the tension on them this is done so that the heifer won't try to get up but will keep straining, However, before you start pulling, reach with clean hands in alongside its legs to see if the head is entering the birth canal or is turned back. The head may be turned around, pointed toward the front of the cow. In an adult cow, a calf's head turned back may be an indication of poor uterine contractions, but in a heifer it may mean that there is not enough room for the head to fit through the pelvic opening.

When the head is positioned properly it will be right above the legs. The nose and/or tongue should be starting through the birth canal, just a little bit behind the feet. If the feet are showing you should be able to reach in just a short way and feel the nose, teeth, tongue, and so forth. Next you must determine if the head will come through the pelvic opening. The nose is probably already through, but if it’s a tight fit the calf's forehead will bump the top of the pelvis. Try to feel over the top of the forehead. If there is not enough room for the head to come through, it will hit on the boney pelvis. If the cow's pelvis hits the calf just above the eyes, he is too large and must be delivered by caesarean section. If the feet are protruding and really large, the heifer will need help.

Persistent hymen. In some heifers labor progresses nicely until the feet and possibly the nose begin to show, then the calf comes no father. If you reach in, you will find a strong band of connective tissue just inside the vulva, making a narrow restriction inside the birth canal. A calf that seems to be a tight fit, even though his nose is visible at the vulva may be hung up on a persistent  hymen. 

These rings of tissues are common in heifers, and stretching or breaking them is painful. Some heifers quit straining when this pain occurs. The delay in calving due to her reluctance to strain causes stress for the calf, being in the birth canal for a long time, therefore it is best to help the heifer. A pull on the calf's legs will usually bring him out.

It helps if one person pulls the legs with chains and handles, with another – with clean hands – stretches the rings of the tissue each time the heifer strains. The person stretching the vulva can stand beside the cow if she is up or sit beside her hip, if she is down, facing to the rear. If you are stretching the vulva, pull and stretch it each time she strains, and rest as she rests. Once the calf's head is out, the rest of the calf generally comes quickly.

If it’s a big calf and a hard birth, it also helps to pull on just one leg at a time at first, easing the calf through the birth canal one shoulder at a time until the shoulders are through the pelvis. Sometimes one front foot is well ahead of the other, the leg that is back may be hung up at the shoulder or elbow, or stuck at an odd angle alongside the calf's head instead of underneath it. Generally if you can pull that leg out to catch up with the other one, you can get the calf unstuck.

Dealing with Malpresentations (calf incorrectly positioned)
Sometimes a cow starts labor but the calf does not enter the birth canal. Use your best judgment on whether she is still in the early labor and needs more time, or needs help because of a malpresentation. It is better to check a cow that doesn’t need help than neglect one that does. As long as you stay clean and well lubricated you are unlikely to cause any damage by examining inside the cow. TIMELY CHECKING IS CRUCIAL. You can ìthe calf assume the calf has 3 to 4 hours of oxygen supply after the cow's water breaks. It is wise to check any cow after 2 hours have passed since her water broke if she shows no visible progress. If the calf has not entered the birth canal the cow won't be straining much and may not be lying down, she may jump up if you try to sneak up and feel inside her, and you may have to restrain her. 

A cow with a calf in the birth canal is not as mobile as one whose calf has not yet entered the birth canal. A cow whose calf is still in the uterus is not very incapacitate and can be a challenge to catch up with. If she is just tied up she may try to avoid your reaching into her vagina and swing her hind end around or even kick you.

Tie the tail:
Have someone hold her tail to keep her from flipping it in your face, or tie the tail to a string around the cow's neck. Do not tie it to anything but herself, since she may move around. If she is tied up a helper can push on her hip to hold her in place if she tries to move around while you are checking. Often a cow is most uncooperative when you first put your hand into the vulva. Once you reach farther in your arm in the birth canal will stimulate her to strain and she will stand still.

Manually check on the calf's progress:
FIRST, WASH HER GENITAL AREA WITH ARM WATER TO CLEAR AWAY MANURE. You want her to be very clean so you don’t take any contamination in with your hand. Have a bucket of warm, soapy water hand when you check a cow and warm rinse water in a squeeze bottle. Then you can wash your hands after tying her or restraining her. If she passes manure while you are working take time to rinse her off again – and your hand or arm if necessary, before proceeding.

You can use an obstetrical glove which is plastic sleeve that covers your arm to keep hand and arm clean and keep from contaminating the cow, but it is easier to feel inside the cow and determine what is going on if you do not have the gloves thickness between your fingers and the fetal membranes or calf. Whether you use a glove or bare hand, use a liberal amount of obstetrical lubricant before entering the cow. If you have run out of it, a liquid unscented, uncolored soap will work.

Obstetrical chains should be very clean if using them inside the cow, when putting them on inside birth canal or uterus after you correct malpresentations, they should be boiled or soaked in disinfectant between cows so they are always clean before next use.

Gently insert your hand and reach in until you can determine what is happening. You may find the feet a short distance inside. If this is so, determine whether they are the front feet or hind feet. Perhaps there is only one foot, or a head and no feet. If both front feet are there, reach farther to see if the head is coming. If you get to the knees and still feel no head, this is an indication that it is turned back.

You may have to reach clear to the uterus to determine what the problem is, if no part of the calf has yet entered the birth canal.

If the cervix is fully open you can reach in past your elbow up to your armpit; the uterus and vagina a one big tunnel. If the cervix is not completely dilated, you will come to a restriction about 1.5 feet inside the vagina. If the cervix is starting to open you may get a couple of fingers through, it will feel like putting them through a big rubber band. If it is not open at all you will come to a blind end. You may be able to feel the calf on the other side, but you will be feeling through thick tissue.

If the cervix is not open at all, the cow may not  be in labor, what may have occurred is that she may have been showing abdominal discomfort or restlessness for some other reason. If that is the case turn her loose and just watch her. She may not calve for another day or so. If the cervix is partly open, she is still in early labor, turn her loose and give her more time. Occasionally a cow may be in labor but the cervix does not dilate properly due to a hormonal imbalance, if this is the case then you need assistance from your vet to deliver the calf. If you suspect something is wrong always check her.

If you can reach clear into the uterus when checking the cow, the cervix is fully dilated and the calf should be coming. A malpresentation prevents him from entering the birth canal. Feel gently around and try to determine what position the calf is in. If you are unable to determine the position, call your vet immediately.

Uterine Inertia:
Due to the lack of uterine muscle tone, there are times when a cow does not progress to the point of hard straining. The calf is not pushed up into the birth canal but just lies there in the uterus even though labor has begun. This is fairly common in older cows. If the calf is in a normal front feet first position he can be pulled with little difficulty. But lack of contractions may cause a malpresentation. This must be discovered early and corrected in order to pull the calf while he is still alive.

Backward Position:
Most calves are born head first with front feet extended. But a few are positioned backward and cannot survive the birth unless you are there to help.

Every backward birth is an emergency. Even if the legs do not enter the vagina the birth is generally so slow and difficult that the calf suffocates when the umbilical cord breaks or pinches off because his head and shoulders are still inside the cow. If a backward position is recognized early there is better chance of saving the calf by pulling it.

The backward calf is not streamlined for coming through in that direction. The hips are difficult to pass through the cow's pelvis, and the ribcage tends to catch on the pelvis. Even the lay of the hair is wrong for streamlined movement through the narrow opening. Occasionally the cord may be caught over the hind leg, if this happens, it breaks before the calf is halfway out.

During early labor the calf moves a lot, and if he extends his hind legs to enter the birth canal he can usually be born with your assistance. BUT HE WILL NEED HELP. The only time a backward calf is born alive without help is if he is very small and the cow large, which allows her to calve swiftly.

If the calf does not get his legs extended to enter the birth canal, then he cannot be born until the legs are brought into vagina, if this proves impossible he must be delivered by caesarean.

DELIVERING A BACKWARD CALF
First:  If it is a typical backward birth with hind legs entering the birth canal, the feet protrude from the cow's vulva and you can tell they are hind feet because the heels and dewclaws are pointed upward rather than down. Do not assume the calf is backward, reach inside and check. He could be sideways or upside down, or legs may be twisted so when feet first appear they are pointed upward. He may just need rotating. Always be sure which part of the calf is presented before you put chains on and start to pull. Remember, front legs only bend in one direction, rear legs bend in two directions. If they are front feet instead of hind feet, be sure the head is not turned back and rotate the calf into a proper position before you assist the birth.

Second: Restrain the cow where you can maneuver the puller without hitting the wall, if the calf is backward. In a small stall open up a panel into the next stall and tie the cow where you have room. 

Third: Use lots of lubricant when assisting a backward calf, put as much obstetrical soap in alongside him as you can with your hand. Make sure the cervix is dilated. You may have to stretch it more with your hand before you pull the calf, or have one person reach in stretch it as the calf is being puling i.e. pushing the cervix over the calf's body as his thighs are being pulled through.

Fourth: After you have chains on the hind legs above the fetlock joints – double loop on each hind leg – attach them to the puller and start pulling gently.

Fifth: Stop and reposition the chains from the fetlock joints to above the calf's hocks, after you get his legs out past the hocks, especially if it is a large or long legged calf. This gives you more room to winch.

Sixth: Once you have chains above the hocks, winch him out slowly and carefully at first until the ribcage is well started through the birth canal then faster as he reaches midway. It is not uncommon for a calf's ribcage to catch on the pelvis and be crushed if you pull forcefully too soon.

Seventh: If the calf is large, you will not be able to deliver him fast enough without a calf puller or assistance of several people. But when using a calf puller remember that it puts a lot of traction on the calf. His umbilical cord is pinched off or broken as the ribcage comes through the cow's pelvis, and he must hurry out before he suffocates.

After the backward calf is delivered, he is held up very briefly by the hind legs so fluid can drain out of his air passages. Tickling the calf's nostril with a piece of straw gets him to cough and start breathing.

WHEN A CALF IS IN BREECH POSITION
When a calf is in the breech position, his rump is first and his legs do not enter the birth canal. The cow takes a long time in early labor and may not start straining at all. If she does start to strain with a breech calf she is jamming hocks or hips into the birth canal and he can't come through.

Should a cow seem to be in early labor for a long time – check her. A breech calf may have only his tail in the birth canal and the cow will not be straining. If no water bag is observed, there may be no visible sign that the birth has begun. If you do not check and correct the malpresentation, the placenta will start to detach and the calf will die. If assistance is given soon enough hind legs can be brought into the birth canal and a live calf delivered.

DELIVERING A BREECH CALF
First. You can tell if a calf is in the breech position because you will feel only the tail or rump when you reach into the cow. CALL A VET IF YOU ARE INEXPERIENCED AS SOON AS YOU DISCOVER THE CALF IS IN THE BREECH POSITION. You must bring the legs into the birth canal. This will be much easier if the cow is standing rather than lying down – so you can get both arms into her. Push the calf back into the uterus as far as possible. Push the rump forward with one hand and grasp a leg with the other bending the hock joint and lifting the leg upward, rotating it as you lift. Draw the calf's foot backward in an arc, keeping the hock joint flexed tightly and the calf pushed as far forward as possible.

Lift the foot up over the cow's pelvis, cupping your hand around the hoof so it won’t tear the uterine wall. If the cow's uterus is torn, even though you call your vet it has a 50% chance of survival. Switch hands holding the calf forward and do the same with the other leg. Do not let the foot scrape or poke the side of the uterus and tear it; this could be fatal to your cow. Once you have both hind legs in the birth canal, attach chains and pull the calf he is now in the proper posterior position.

WHEN A CALF'S HEAD IS TURNED BACKWARDS
Should the calf's head fail to enter the birth canal, one or both front feet may protrude but the cow does not progress any further, at other times nothing will show. To correct the problem, try to get her up or keep her on her feet so that you might correct the problem because it is difficult to get a turned-back head straightened out if the cow is lying down as her abdominal contents press against the calf and you do not have room in the uterus to maneuver.

This kind of birth can be a challenge. Use both hand, holding the calf with one while grasping the head with the other by the lower jaw to bring the head up into the birth canal. Once you have a good grip on the jaw you can usually get the head in the right position.

Do not be tempted to use a snare to turn a calf's head that points in the wrong direction because this is likely to push the calf's nose through the side of the uterus. However, a snare can be helpful when the head is trying to come into the birth canal and "missing" because there isn't quite enough room, then a snare can be carefully used to bring the head up into the birth canal when pulling the calf.

WHEN A CALF'S LEG OR LEGS ARE TURNED BACK
When a front leg is turned back, one foot will appear but not the other, sometimes the head and just one foot show. Before the head is out very far, push the calf back into the uterus where there is more room to maneuver the missing leg, and bring it into the birth canal. Get the cow up and push him back and find the leg. It is hard to push him back if he is already jammed in the birth canal and the cow is straining against you. A leg or fetlock joint is fairly easy to straighten and bring into the birth canal. A leg turned back at the shoulder is more difficult to reach and bring forward properly. It helps if someone can hold the cow's tail straight up to hinder her straining while you work. 

WHEN A CALF IS SIDEWAYS OR UPSIDE-DOWN
Often a calf is crooked when entering the birth canal, however most straighten themselves out as they come, but there are times when they need help. If the calf is sideways or upside down, push the calf back into the uterus where there is room to rotate. DO NOT START PULLING ON A CALF UNTIL YOU GET IN THE CORRECT POSITION.

WHEN A CALF HAS ALL FOUR FEET FORWARD
Should a calf have all four feet coming into the birth canal, the calf must be pushed back far enough to move the hind legs back over the pelvic rim and into the uterus.




RECOMMENDATIONS WHEN YOU REPOSITION A CALF
Always use great care when correcting any malpresentation, and use lots of lubricant such as a good disinfectant obstetrical soap. If that is unavailable, then use water soluble, uncolored, unscented soaps.

If you are trying to straighten a leg or turn a head around then keep your hand between the calf and the uterine wall. Hooves and noses can tear the uterus during the cow's contractions if the calf is positioned incorrectly. A torn uterus is very serious and the cow has only a 50% chance of survival even if your vet comes immediately to do a surgical repair, and you may be unaware that the uterus has been torn until you observe the cow's discomfort and subsequent illness after calving.

SUGGESTIONS AS TO HOW TO DEAL WITH HIPLOCK
There are times when a calf gets partway through the birth canal and then gets hanged up at the hips. This situation can be made worse if you are pulling straight out because the cow's pelvic opening is widest at their lower portion.

To avoid hiplock, start pulling downward toward the cow's hind leg as the calf's body emerges. Get the calf out far enough that its ribcage is free of the birth canal before you pull sharply downward or you may hurt his rib. If the calf is out past the ribcage, he can start breathing even if the umbilical cord is pinched off and he hiplocks – this gives you enough time to get him out.

On a hiplock, make sure the ribcage is out. Then pull the calf straight down and underneath the cow if she is standing, between her hind legs, toward her belly.

Should you still have problems and cannot get him out, two people can roll the cow temporarily onto her back with one person each side of the leg, and pull him directly towards her belly, between her hind legs. Use lots of lubricant, putting it in a long and around the calf as far as you can reach. Pulling him between her legs across the udder and belly usually does the trick. However, if this is not the case, alternate sideways pulls in a rotation motion to free one hip and then the other. This works best if you rotate the cow instead of the calf.

If using a calf-puller when the calf hiplocks, loosen the tension on it and roll the cow as far as possible on her back. She will most probably be on the ground by the time you have pulled hard enough with the puller to determine whether the calf is hip locked. With the cow on her back, bring the puller upright and tighten the tension as much as possible. Then bring the end of the puller across her belly, pulling it down toward her head. This rotates the calf's hips so the upper portion can more easily clear the cow's pelvis as he is pulled across her udder and belly. When the puller rod passes center and starts down toward the cow's head, the breech spanner of the calf puller will slide off the cow and into the calf's abdomen, but this helps push him out!

You may be reluctant to try these methods, but there may not be time for a vet to get to your place while you still have a live calf. If there is someone to run to the phone, call your Vet but continue try to assist the birth. DO NOT PANIC. You can usually accomplish the delivery especially if you have someone to help roll the cow onto her back. Stay calm and proceed in a logical manner.

WHEN THE PLACENTA COMES AHEAD OF THE CALF
Premature detachment of the placenta is serious, if the placenta breaks from the uterus the calf oxygen to the calf is cut off. If you notice a protrusion of dark-red membrane instead of the anticipated water bag or amnion sac, or if you see dark-red "buttons" along with the amnion sac, restrain your cow immediately and reach in to see if there is a problem. Even if the calf is coming normally and making progress deliver him quickly before the rest of the placenta detaches – otherwise you may lose him.

TORISON OF THE UTERUS
There are times when a cow that has reached its late stage of pregnancy shows signs of abdominal pain, in a way similar to that of calving. This is due to the uterus and its contents being flipped over, making a corkscrew twist in the cervix that causes discomfort. Generally this condition is not discovered until she goes into labor. Uterine torsion is not common, but you should know what it is and be prepared to deal with it.

In the pregnant cow, the uterus and its contents are drawn forward and downward as the fetus becomes larger and heavier. The uterus rests on the abdominal floor in late pregnancy, and as it hangs downward it may swing to one side or the other and twist or flip over if the cow moves suddenly as when fighting, falling down or experiencing a sudden jot. Pregnant cows that do not get much exercise are more apt to have this problem because lack of exercise reduces normal muscle activity and proper bone tone.

If the torsion is just a partial twist, it may correct itself as soon as it happens. But sometimes the uterus and vagina remain rotated especially if the heavy fetus has stretched or torn the ligaments that hold the uterus in place. 

A cow with uterine torsion may not be immediate danger. The problem is not discovered until she tries to calve. If uterine torsion is discovered before she has been in labor too long, then there is a good chance of saving the cow and the calf. If not, the calf will be dead and the cow's life may be at risk.

If the cow is obviously in early labor but never starts hard straining, if you can reach your hand in as far as the cervix but no farther, you may think at first that the cervix is not dilated, but upon closer examination you may be able to feel the calf's feet, with a wall of tissue between the foot and your hand. There will be extra folds and twists of tissue. This is because the uterus has rotated and the birth canal is twisted. If you reach in to check a cow and discover you cannot get to the cervix due to narrowing of the birth canal, or you feel several folds of tissue between your hand and the cervix or uterus, call your vet.

The vet will examine the cow rectally and if the uterus has shifted, one of the broad ligaments will have crossed over the top of the uterus and the other will have dropped straight downward. If the uterus has turned more than 1280 degrees, the vagina will also be twisted and the cervix cannot be felt. The vet will also reach into the birth canal to determine the direction of the twist. 

In the case of a mild torsion i.e. when the birth canal is not completely closed off, it can be corrected if the vet reaches through, gets hold of the feet, and uses them to turn the calf and uterus to the correct position. If the water bag and amnion sac have not ruptured, the vet will break them to let out fluid and reduce the size and weight of the uterus so it is easier to turn. The vet will push the calf as far back into the uterus as possible, grasp the leg or body and rock it in an arc, then with a sudden strong movement lift and turn the calf and uterus, and thereby relive the torsion.

In the case of a severe torsion this requires more drastic methods. The vet may try rolling the cow. She is pulled down with ropes, taking a leg out from under her, pulling her gently over and down and rolled on to her back. Then several strong people can roll the cow quickly in the same direction as the twist. If the torsion is to the left, the cow is placed on her left side and a weighted board laid on her right flank to help hold the uterus and the calf in place. Then she is rolled on to her right side hoping that the twist is relieved. If this does not work, the vet may make an incision in her flank opposite to the direction of the twist. He will reach through the opening and turn the uterus and calf to normal position. Once the twist is corrected, the calf can be delivered by pulling.

If the vet is not strong enough to turn the uterus through a flank incision then a caesarean must be performed. This is also the case if other efforts fail or the cervix is not dilated or is already constricted after prolonged labor. A caesarean may also be necessary if the uterus has ruptured and the calf has fallen into the abdominal cavity.

CAESAREAN SECTION
A caesarean section is the last resort when a calf cannot be delivered through the birth canal. With the cow restrained the vet clips and shaves her upper flank, injects a local anesthetic, disinfects the area, and slices through the hide. The vet cuts through the abdominal membranes and locates the uterus. The wall of the uterus is careful opened with an incision just long enough to pull the calf through. The vet will, more often than not place an antibiotic medication in the uterus and at the site of incisions.

Thereafter the uterus, abdominal membranes, and skin are sewed back together. If the calf is alive you will most likely be tending to him, i.e. getting him breathing, dipping the navel stump in iodine, while the vet sews up the cow. She will be sore for a few days but will usually mother the calf with a little help from you. She may need antibiotics and painkillers.

BIRTH OF TWINS
Twins are a problem if one is malpresented or both enter the birth canal at once. If you are checking the cow you may feel too many feet or discover a front leg from one calf and hind leg of another. Keep in mind the possibility of twins when trying to figure out what you are feeling. Occasionally twins are so abnormally position you will need your vet to untangle and deliver them. Or you may have a problem at birth and deliver a calf that seems smaller than it ought to be. Feel inside the cow again right after delivery to see if there is another calf.

Some cows accept one twin but reject the other, but more often she will mother both of them. Be sure they both get licked and both get a chance to nurse. If one is larger and more aggressive, make sure the smaller or more passive twin gets its share of milk.

CALVING COMPLICATIONS
There are times when a calf dies in the uterus, as in the case of a breech or some other malpresentation, or a uterine torsion that is discovered too late. Sometimes a calf dies in late gestation and the cow goes into labor to expel it, but uterine contractions might not be able to position the dead calf to aim for the birth canal. A dead calf is limp and has no reflex actions to help position it for birth.

You can tell if a calf is dead at the time you check inside the cow, a live calf generally jerks a leg when you try to grab it or pinch the skin between its toes. If the calf is dead there will be no response, no reflexes when you manipulate it into position. If you cannot correct the malpresentation, your vet may have to carefully dismember the dead calf inside the uterus so the pieces can be safely extracted – this is safer for the cow than a caesarean, unless the uterus is already damaged and ruptured from straining. Afterwards, antibiotics are given to help prevent infection of the uterus.

PROLAPSE OF THE UTERUS
A prolapsed uterus can occur within a few minutes or even a couple of hours after birth while the cervix is still dilated. This is a fairly common complication of calving. If the cow keeps straining because of continued contractions and after pains as the placenta is being expelled and the uterus begins to shrink, she may push out the uterus after the calf. This can happen whether the birth was normal or assisted, easy or difficult. To reduce the chances of uterine prolapse, get the cow to stand up as soon as possible after birth, especially after you have pulled a calf. Getting her up and moving around a little usually makes the uterus drop back down into the abdominal cavity and straightens the uterine horns, which may have begun to turn inside out.

A prolapsed uterus is a serious emergency – call your vet as soon as you discover it. It the weather is cold, the exposed tissue serves as an outlet for loss of body heat. The cow may get a chill, go into shock and die. If the cow happens to lie on, step on, or kick the tissue, she may rupture a major artery and bleed to death. Even if the uterus does not suffer major damage it is easily bruised and will become infected if the cow lies on the ground or it is covered with manure. Give antibiotics after the prolapse is thoroughly cleaned and replaced.

Prolapse of the uterus should not be confused with prolapse of the vagina which is a condition that generally occurs before calving in the heavily pregnant cow. The vaginal prolapse is a mass of pink tissue about the size of a large grapefruit or even a volleyball, whereas a uterine prolapse is a much larger, longer mass, more deep red in color, covered with "buttons" on which the placenta is attached.

WHEN THE PLACENTA IS RETAINED
It is usual for a cow to shed the placenta a few hours after calving. But sometimes cows take up to 10 days to shed the rotting membranes. 

When a cow fails to shed the placenta promptly, it drags on the ground. Most vets no longer manually remove a retained placenta because this does more harm than good. The problem with removing it manually is that when the placental membrane is torn away, the hookup to the uterus lining is opened for easy access by bacteria. Sometimes an injection of oxytocin, which is a hormone that stimulates uterine contractions and milk, helps a cow to shed the placenta, but this only works if given soon after calving and is not always effective.

In the past it was common to place a sulfa bolus in the uterus after a difficult birth or retained placenta. This is rarely done nowadays, most vets feel the dirt and debris introduced into the uterus along with the bolus cause more infection than the antibiotic cures.

Usually retained placenta isn't serious. The cow eventually sheds it and recovers to rebreed on schedule. A confined cow with little exercise may take longer to shed a retained placenta than a cow that can move around. Turn her out and she will generally clean faster. But always keep close watch, if she goes off her feed or seems dull consult your vet and treat her for infection.

PARALYSIS OF A COW AFTER A DIFFICULT BIRTH
If a calf is large or pulled with excessive force, the cow may be temporarily paralyzed for a few minutes, a few hours or even a few days. A nerve has been stretched, she cannot pull her legs inward to stand properly. Often one hind leg is more affected than the other depending on which side the cow was lying on when she calved.

After any difficult birth, encourage the cow to get up as soon as possible. The longer she lies there – especially if in an awkward position – the more likely she is to have trouble with her hind legs or to prolapse the uterus if she continues to strain. GET HER UP IF POSSIBLE and be prepared to grab her tail and steady her if she wobbles. You do not want her to fall down on the newborn calf. Put him in a safe corner before you get her up

HOW TO GET A COW UP
If a mother cow refuses to get up after calving, try giving her a smell of the calf with amniotic fluid on your hands. An older cow usually shows interest and wants to get up and lick her calf, but this may not work on a heifer. Try startling her into getting up by shooing at her, or giving her a small poke in the rump. If that does not work, twist her tail. If she still refuses, put your hands over her nose and hold them tight over the nostrils so she cannot breathe. After a moment or two she will try to get up – this is more humane than beating her. But if she slings her head around so you cannot hold her nose shut and she still refuses to get up, let her lie there and try again in 30 minutes. As a last resort, a cattle prod – which gives an electric shock applied to the hairless area under her tail will get her up if she is not paralyzed. The shock startles more than hurts and will not bruise or injure as would whips etc.

NOTE:
LEARN AS MUCH AS YOU CAN DO YOURSELF, BUT RECOGNIZE YOUR LIMITATIONS AND CALL YOUR VET FOR ASSISTANCE EARLY

THE DELIVERY OF YOUR CALF
After having assisted with the birth – and especially after delivering a backward calf – start him breathing as soon as possible. He may start breathing on his own if you tickle a piece of hay or straw up his nose to stimulate him to cough. However, if there is a lot of fluid in his air passages hold him up briefly by the hind legs and let him hang head downward so the fluid drains out. Then tickle his nostril – so long as he is conscious this generally works.

If the calf has been without oxygen too long he may be limp, blue and unconscious. Take a quick feel of the chest behind the front leg, left side. If you feel a heartbeat he can be saved once you get him breathing. If holding him upside down and tickling his nose do not work, then give him artificial respiration.

HOW TO GIVE ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION TO A CALF
If a calf has a heartbeat you can most likely save him. Feel just behind the lower left side of the ribcage, if a calf fails to start breathing within 20 – 30 seconds after birth and has a heart rate lower than normal – normal being 100 – 120 beats per minute, he is in danger. If the heart rate drops as low as 30 – 40 beats per minute his condition is critical. His gums and nose will be gray or colorless instead of pink – he must start breathing immediately.

Clear his airways as quickly as possible, hold him upside down briefly or suction his nostrils with a suction bulb. Briskly massage the body and legs, moving his legs as you massage them. If he still does not breathe lay him on his side with head and neck extended so the passage into the windpipe is open. Cover one nostril tightly with your hand, holding the mouth shut. Blow gently into the uppermost nostril. Do not blow rapidly or too forcefully or you may rupture a lung. Two people can work as a team with one holding the calf's head while the other blows into the nostril the other gently rubs and massages the legs for stimulation and periodically checks the heartbeat. 

Blow a full breath into one nostril until the chest rises. Let the air come back out. Blow another breathe until the chest rises again to show the lungs are filling. Continue filling the lungs and letting them empty until he starts breathing and regains consciousness. Keep breathing for him until he can breathe for himself. It may take just a few breaths or quite a while.

His breaths may be erratic at first, but if everything else is normal he will develop a regular breathing pattern.

CHAPTER 8 - CARE OF THE NEWBORN CALF
The care you give him during the first few hours after his birth is crucial to the future health of the calf and his survival. 

FIRST BREATH
Make sure the amnion sac comes off when the calf comes out otherwise he will die.

Most cows get up straight after giving birth and start licking their calf this removes the membrane away from the calf's nose. If the cow is tired from labor and lies there or if the sac is thick and the calf can't get it off by shaking his head – he will suffocate. There is a limit as to how long the calf can go without air once his umbilical cord is broken. If the sac does not come off quickly he will die. If it does not happen naturally then clear it away for him.

CARE OF THE UMBILICAL CORD
When the cow gets up and the calf starts to struggle around the umbilical card will break. It usually breaks a few inches from the navel, but sometimes as much as 12 inches or so. The remaining stump hangs there until it dries up and falls off. For a while there is still an opening at the navel until it seals off.

HANDLING THE UMBILICAL CORD
In the event that the cord breaks off long, break it shorter with clean hands. Pull the cord between your hands to break it. Pulling it apart is better than cutting it, blood vessels in the cord constrict better. Do not pull on the cord in such a way that it pulls on the calf, you may damage him internally. Leave just a few inches of cord, then dip it in iodine. If the cord is full of blood squeeze it out before dipping then it will dry up faster.

Until the navel stump heals, the calf is vulnerable to infection through the navel opening. This is not a problem if he is born in a clean place such as a grassy pasture, but if he is born in a barnyard, corral or bar stall without clean bedding, infection can set it. Infection can kill him or affect his joint, resulting in crippling arthritis.

DISINFECTING THE NAVEL STUMP
Preventing infection includes disinfecting the navel cord as soon as it breaks. The best disinfectant is strong 7% tincture iodine. The easiest way to soak the navel stump is to use a small wide-mouth jar with a half inch of iodine in it. Dip the entire navel stump into the little jar and slosh the iodine around with the jar held over the stump up tight against the belly. Avoid getting the iodine on any other part of the calf because it can burn the skin – be careful not to get it into your eyes and those of the calf.

Iodine also acts as an astringent, it helps the navel stump to dry up. If the calf lies on wet bedding or the navel stump get soiled, iodine it several more times until it is dry. Heifer's navels dry up faster than the navels of little bulls which may stay wet from urine.

EVERY COW IS DIFFERENT
Some cows need firmness, others need gentle persuasion. The cow with a new calf is nervous protective and easily upset. Do not talk when the calf is nursing. When working around calving cows it is best not to do any talking at all or make any noise. Most cows trust you better at calving time if you are quiet when working around them.

DO NOT HAVE STRANGE SMELLS IN THE BARN
Cows have a keen sense of smell and are easily upset by something unusual. Smell of smoke or fried meat i.e. scents that cling to your hair, skin or clothes may alarm them. Do not use scented hand creams, shampoo, aftershave, or deodorant when working with calving cows and their calves, do not wash your coat. If you always wear the same coat and coveralls for barn work and they smell like manure and birth fluids, cows accept you much better and you will have an easier time handling them.

HELPING A CALF TO NURSE
Soon after birth a newborn calf should be up and start to nurse. If he hasn't got up within 30 minutes, help him to stand and find the teat. Make sure every calf nurses within an hour – 2 hours at the very most – after birth. The colostrums, which is the first milk, provides vital antibodies against disease along with energy and calories to keep warm.

If a heifer's calf is slow to get up, or the heifer herself is nervous and does not let him near the udder, give the calf a bottle of warm colostrums. A small necked bottle and lamb nipple work well.

THE IMPORTANCE OF COLOSTRUM
The cow's first milk is thicker than regular milk, with more nutrients and less water and contains ingredients vital to the calf's health. It serves as a laxative to help the calf pass his first bowel movement which consists of a dark sticky substance called meconium. Colostrum also contains a rich creamy fat that is easily digested and very high in energy – an ideal first meal for a calf struggling to become coordinated and needing to keep warm. Calves that do not get colostrums promptly are more likely to become ill or die within the first weeks of life than calves that nurse right away.

Colostrum has twice the calories of normal milk. Should you come upon a newborn calf in the pasture and he is up bucking around, that is a good sign he has already nursed. But, to make sure check the cow's udder. The teats he has nursed should be visibly smaller than when she calved, and moist from his saliva and the hair on the udder wet and curled. If he nursed only part of the udder, you can tell the difference in the quarters, i.e. those that he did not nurse from are full.

Of special importance are the antibodies in colostrums. The calf comes into the world completely vulnerable to disease and has to get immunity through its mother's colostrums. This temporary immunity usually lasts several weeks until the calf's immune system becomes mature enough to start making antibodies. If the mother cow's vaccinations are up to date she will have anti-bodies against specific diseases, and those will be in her colostrums to protect the calf as soon as it nurses.

A calf that gets no colostrum, or does not nurse until he is several hours old runs high risk of developing scours (diarrhea) and or pneumonia during the first weeks of life. For a short while after birth, he can absorb antibodies directly through the intestinal lining. Optimum time for absorbing antibodies is during the first 30 minutes, before the intestinal wall thickens. If the calf is later than 1 or 2 hours with his first nursing, he gets only a fraction of the antibodies he needs.

Vets are of the opinion that colostrums absorption drops by half by the time the calf is 4 hours old, and by that time he may he lost 75% of his ability to absorb colostral antibodies. After this time the absorption rate diminishes rapidly. 

Should a calf nurse only a little due to being cold or the cow being uncooperative, it may be too late for antibody absorption by the time he is able to try again. Always make sure the calf gets an adequate amount of colostrums early so he can absorb enough antibodies. If you only give him a pint to get him going so he can get up and nurse, make sure he does nurse within the next hour. 

Factors affecting absorption of antibodies:
A difficult birth has an adverse effect on a calf's immune system. He is unable to absorb as much as he should due to stress, oxygen deprivation, and subsequent acidosis which is the altered pH of the body. Also, if field calving in bad weather, the new calf may become chilled and unable to nurse. You may find him next morning or during the middle of the night check and help him to nurse or give a bottle or force feed via a stomach tube or esophageal feeder, but if he is already 4 hours old or older the antibodies won’t do him much good. Many cases of "weak calves, are a combination of weather stress and immunity failure, and these calves can be difficult to save.

THE QUALITY OF COLOSTRUM
A mature cow has better quality colostrums than a first calf heifer since she has come into contact with more diseases and has had more time to develop strong immunity. Calves born to heifers may get only half the disease protection of calves born to mature cows. If you have to give colostrums to a heifer's calf, use colostrums from an older cow.

The cows you raise on your own place have more antibodies against local disease organism than a cow you buy. If you have to borrow colostrums from someone else or from a dairy, it will be better than no colostrums but may not contain exactly the antibodies your calf needs. Best protection for your calf comes from colostrums produced by a cow that has experienced the same disease environment the calf is being born it.

A cow's body condition also affects the antibody protection the calf gets. The nutrition of the cow during the last trimester of pregnancy significantly affects the volume of colostrums produced. Do not skimp on feed for first time calf heifers since they tend to produce less colostrums and fewer antibodies than older cows, even under good conditions.

As time passes after birth the quality of colostrums decreases being diluted with production of regular milk. If you save colostrum to freeze make sure it is from a cow that just calved and from a quarter not yet nursed. By the second milking of a quarter there is a lot less colostrums in it.

THE BEST INSURANCE
You have waited 9 months for the cow/heifer to calf. You have fed her, vaccinated her, and kept her healthy. Be sure not to jeopardize all that by neglecting her new calf. Make sure he gets an adequate amount of colostrum 1.5 – 2 quarts, within the first 2 hours of life is the cheapest and most effective insurance you can provide against life-threatening diseases he may have to cope with.
  
KEEPING AN EMERGENCY SUPPLY OF COLOSTRUM
Frozen colostrums is handy for all sorts of emergencies such as a calf too weak to nurse, or one that loses its mother or an inexperienced mother that is too nervous to allow her calf to nurse. If you have a gentle cow that gives a lot of milk, you can "steal" colostrums from her and freeze it. Milk some into a very clean bottle while her own calf is nurses the first time, kneel down at calf level and keep the calf between you and the cow's inquisitive head. If you ever have a cow with a large teat the calf can't get onto when he first nurses – milk it out and save that milk.

Often a bottle of colostrums give the calf energy and enthusiasm to get up and nurse on its own, but sometimes you may have to help him nurse. 

If a cow or heifer is calm and gentle, and not too upset when you are handling their calf, you can help him if needed by yourself. Distract the cow/heifer by giving her a flake of alfalfa so she will stand in one place while you help the calf. Get the calf up on his feet and to the udder – be careful not to upset him. Try to guide the calf to the udder and get a teat in his mouth without much fuss. Even though you are helping him, do it in a way that he thinks it is his idea!

It often helps to get him suck your finger, then slip him on to a teat, but before you do that make sure the teats are all working. Teats have a plug in the end unless the cow has been dripping milk. This plug usually comes out when the calf starts to suck. If the teat is sealed tightly – especially in cold weather a teat may have a scab on the end that must be pried off otherwise the calf may suck without getting any milk. So give each teat a squirt to make sure its working, but have the calf close by the when you do it so the cow will think the calf is trying to nurse. If you approach the cow without the calf being there with you – she may kick you!

Even if the calf nurses without help, make sure he actually gets the colostrums. If a teat is sealed tightly it may look sucked but the quarter will still be full.

Some calves insist on fighting your efforts. Bull calves are sometimes more stubborn than heifers. If a calf is difficult, try giving a little colostrum in a bottle. His attitude should change from resistance or indifference to that of eagerness, and it is easier to get him onto the cow's teat.

If the mother cow shows signs of nervousness and does not stand still, or is protective of her calf by aggressively threatening you, it works better with two people. One to guide the calf to the udder and get the teat in his mouth and the other to hold the cow still in the corner of the pen or stall – don't forget to give her a flake of good alfalfa to distract her.

Holding the cow still:
The person holding the cow in the corner has a crucial job. If she is aggressive, make sure she does not attack the person helping the calf. If on the other hand she is timid, keep her still so she does not run off or move at the wrong time. She must be cornered, but not feel threatened. She must be relaxed enough to trust you.

Needless to say, it helps to know the individual cow's attitude, to feel her mood and intentions. Then the cow holder can prevent a lot of moving around or greatly minimize the risk to the person helping the calf to nurse. The cow holder can usually keep the cow still by standing in front of her at the appropriate distance to keep her from running off without her feeling threatened.

Using body language:
Use body language to control the cow. Your position makes a difference whether or not the cow stands still. Use a long stick to block her movements. It can be held out as a "fence" in front of her or to tap her if she makes a move to threaten the person helping the calf. As for aggressive mothers that try to attack anyone who touches the calf use a sturdy stick, axe handle, or even the barn cleaning fork but be careful not to poke a cow in the eye. Some cows are ferocious at calving time even though they are gentle the rest of the year. But if you are firm and not afraid of them, and have handled them enough that they accept you as the "boss cow" they generally cooperate. Do not attempt to handle an aggressive cow unless you have "mind control" over her or a weapon to defend yourself if she decides to charge at you or your helper.

You can distract a cow's attention just with a movement or small noise to keep her focused up front instead of on the person handling the calf. A slight tap on the ear can pull her attention back if she starts to worry too much about what is going on back at the udder.

Handling a nervous or timid cow:
The main thing is to be quiet, calm, confident and relaxed with a nervous or timid cow. Reassure her that you are not a threat. Each cow as her own distance of trust and will stand if you hold her in it and not act as a threat.

Judge that distance with each cow, giving her proper space and using body language whenever she gives a sign she is about to move. You can read her intention in her expression or a slight shift of weight or turn of her head and then prevent movement before it occurs.

Restraining an uncooperative cow:
There are times when you must restrain the cow to suckle her calf. Once the heifer has nursed the confused cow she will mother him better since nursing stimulates production of important hormones that encourage motherliness.

Once a cow loves her calf but still kicks at him because of a sore udder, you may have to hobble her until the udder is less tender. For the first nursing you should tie her or put her in a chute or head catcher. A head catcher with a side or gate that swings away after the cow is caught works well.

Once a cow is restrained and you get the calf up to her, she may resign herself to standing still and lettering him nurse. But some cows will continue to kick violently and are a danger to the calf and the person trying to help it. In this event tie the hind leg back on the side you are working on to keep her from kicking. Put a double loop of rope around her leg above the fetlock joint using a double half-hitch knot. If you use only a single loop, or if it gets below the join encircling the leg just above the hoof, she may kick out of it or shake the rope off. Leave just enough slack in the rope that she can still put weight on the leg comfortably - otherwise she may kick, fight and possibly throw herself on the ground - but not enough that she can swing that leg forward to kick the calf or you. 


HOW TO MAKE BALING TWINE HOBBLES
First: Use 4 strands of bailing twine. Choose twines cut next to the knot, so the knot is at the end and not the middle. Tie twines together at their knot end.

Second: Restrain the cow in a chute or head catcher, or tie her and tie a hind leg back so she cannot kick while you are making the hobbles around her legs. Situate the hobbles above the rope holding her leg so you can take the rope off her leg after you have made the hobbles.

Third: Make the first loop around one leg above the fetlock joint, tying the first knot a few inches from the end so there will be plenty of room to go around the cow's leg; then tie the twines into a loose loop. Make the loop large and loose enough so you can get one or two fingers between the loop and the cow's leg, but no looser, otherwise the cow will be able to pull the hobbles off when she tries to walk or kick. She might also get a toe of the other foot caught in the twines if a loop is too loose.

Fourth: When making the first knot, double-tie it so it cannot slip. All knots must be nonslip, because if a loop ever tightens up it will cut off the circulation to her foot. Double-tie the knots on both leg loops. Leave 8 – 10 inches of space between leg loops, depending on the size of the cow. You want enough slack so she can walk but not kick. On the second loop, after you make the final knot to finish the loop make another double-tie and extra knot so it cannot come undone. Also do that on the first loop just before you start the loop so that the knots stay in place. When finished with the second loop and extra security knot, cut off the extra twine ends so they do not drag on the ground and stepped upon.

Be sure the loops are the right size around the cow's legs i.e. not too tight and not too loose, the knots secure and nonslip, and that there is proper space between the loops to enable the cow to walk and get up and down – but short enough to keep her from kicking and getting a toe caught in the twine. The hobbles can be cut off when the cow no longer kicks her calf.

GETTING COLOSTRUM INTO A CALF THAT CANNOT NURSE
If a calf is unable to nurse because he is too weak or cold, or because his mouth and tongue are swollen from a hard birth, try a bottle first – this stimulate the sucking reflex.

If he cannot or will not suck do not force it or you may get milk down his windpipe and put him at risk for pneumonia. Give warm colostrums via stomach tube or esophageal feeder.

A new calf should have at least a quart of colostrums within an hour of birth, or as much as 2 quarts for a large calf. When feeding a calf that will not be able to suck on its own for several hours give a full feeding. But if trying to encourage a calf that may soon be able to suck, give only a pint or two to get the calf going so it will nurse on its own within the crucial time frame.

HEIFERS THAT REFUSE TO MOTHER THEIR CALVES
If despite all your efforts to help, if a first-calf heifer remains reluctant to mother her calf after it has nursed, you will have to supervise each nursing for a while to make sure the calf gets fed. Sometimes all it takes is to go into the pen or stall and give the young cow something good to eat, standing guard as the calf nurses to make sure she does not move around too much or kick. After a day or two she will usually mother the calf.

If the cow is not too wild or difficult, you can halter her each time you let the calf in to nurse, but if she is uncooperative and difficult to corner and halter, leave a halter on her all the time, dragging the halter rope. Then you can feed her a flake of alfalfa hay, get hold of the rope and tie her while she eats and let the calf nurse, soon she will get used to the routine and look forward to the good hay at nursing time, and resign herself to letting the calf nurse without resistance since she cannot run off or kick.

If she is aggressively mean, charging at the calf and knocking it down whenever it tries to get up, or ramming it into the wall or viciously kicking when it tries to nurse, use more drastic measures. Keep the calf separate from her after you help it nurse to avoid injury. Put the pair in adjacent pens or use a small panel to confine the calf in a corner of her stall to protect the calf from her aggression.

For the first couple of days a calf needs to be nursed every 6 hours, after that every 8 hours. Let the calf out only at nursing time and supervise. If she kicks viciously even when you are there to reprimand her, put hobbles on her and halter to tie her if she refuses to stand still or tries to bash the calf with her head. This enables the calf to nurse without risk.

Be patient, time is on your side even though it may take 1 or 2 days, or a week or longer, the cow will eventually accept the calf. Once she starts showing some interest such as mooing at him or worrying about him when you put him back in his pen, or licking him while he nurses and of course no long tries to hurt him, you can leave them together, but keep the cow hobbled until you are sure she will no longer try to kick him. Only after she has accepted him fully should the hobbles be removed.

A young cow slow to mother her first calf may be fine the next year with her second calf – it could be that she is just temporarily confused. However, the cow that viciously refuses to let her calf nurse and takes a long time i.e. several days or a week or more to finally accept him is apt to do it again with her next calf. There are some cows that do soften with age and become better mothers by the third or fourth calf.

GRAFTING A CALF
If you have another cow that lost her own calf you may decide to try and graft an unwanted calf to her – this is not always easy to convince a cow to take a calf that is not hers. A first-calf heifer is often easiest to fool since she is inexperience. If you still have fresh birth fluids at hand you can often trick her by rubbing the smell i.e. amniotic fluid, placental membranes etc. of her own calf onto the substitute.

Cows on the other hand need more convincing. There are products you can buy to sprinkle on the calf that make her want to lick him. Or you can put VICKS VAPORUB on the calf and on her nose to hinder her sense of smell and keep her confused as to the true identity of the new calf. These methods work for some cows, especially if you hobble and tie the cow for a few days if she is not quite sure.

The oldest trick, and the one that works best of all is to skin her dead calf and put the hide on the substitute calf. Cows recognize their offspring by smell. The cow smells her calf and that smell locks into her memory, and this is how she can pick her calf out from the rest of the herd.

The dead calf should be skinned while fresh. Legs should be skinned intact so the hide can be put over the live calf like a jacket with the live calf's legs going through holes of the skin. This holds the jacket in place. The tail of the dead calf should be left attached; the cow will smell and lick the calf's hind end, and it had better smell like hers! Once the calf has nursed a few times it is usually safe to take off the old skin. It won't be needed after the pair bonds. The cow will mother and protect that calf as diligently as if it were the one she gave birth too. 

WARMING A CHILLED CALF
If a calf is born in cold weather and gets chilled, warm and dry him as quickly as possible. Rubbing him with towels helps to dry him and stimulates circulation. Put him under a heat lamp in the barn or use a hair drier to get him warm and dry in a hurry. If you bring the calf into the house, make sure the cow has had a chance to smell and lick him first so she will mother him after you bring him back. If you take him too soon after he is born or if you get all his smell off for example when having to thaw him in really cold weather in a bathtub of warm water, then drying him with towels, the mother cow may not claim him.

Should the calf be nearly frozen, the fastest way to thaw and warm him is in the bathtub. But do not clean him thoroughly because the cow will not recognize his smell.

GETTING A NEWBORN CALF IN FROM THE PASTURE
When a calf is born in the cold, bring him and the mother cow into a shelter. If he is small and it is not far away, pick him up and bring him in – its mother will follow. However, it can confuse her when you pick him up off the ground. Cows are not used to seeing a calf anywhere but at "calf-level" and may not realize you have her baby and want to stay at the spot where he was born or running back there if she gets confused along the way. You may have to set the calf down a few times and make calf noises to encourage her to follow you. Many cows will follow the scent of their calves, coming close at your heels and smell the ground since scent drops to the ground.

If the calf is large it may be too heavy to carry. If the cow is an aggressive mother it may not be safe to carry the calf unless someone helps you. You are vulnerable to being attacked by the cow with no way to defend yourself. When this is the case it is better to use a sled or wagon i.e. something you can pull or attach behind a pickup or a 4 wheeler. If the calf is mobile enough to get up and fall off the sled or wagon, restrain him so he cannot fall off. Otherwise have a rack on the sled or wagon that does not interfere with the cow's ability to see and smell him as she follows.

COPING WITH OVERPROTECTIVE MOTHERS
If a cow is mean and aggressive, calving time comes with risks. Dangerous cows should be sold, it is just not worth taking a chance of getting hurt or injured. Select smart, gentle cattle when choosing breeding stock because they are the most trainable if you handle them properly. However, you must know that even if they are docile at other times of the year she may become aggressive at calving time. When making barn stalls, make them with panels, not solid walls that cannot be climbed so that you have an escape route up a wall to save yourself from being injured.

It helps to understand cows and how they think. If you handle them properly you can get along with overprotective mothers without putting yourself at risk. When attending a birth i.e. being there to put iodine on the navel or take off the amnion sac, be quiet and stay out of the way until the proper time, then move in quickly just as the calf is delivered and do what is necessary and get out.

Take advantage of the few seconds while the cow is finishing delivery to sneak into the stall and quickly iodine the calf and clean the sac off its head if necessary just before or as the cow is getting up. Often her first reaction upon getting up is to check out her new baby, to start smelling and licking him instead of charging at you. If you can be quiet and quick, keeping the calf between you and the cow, she won't fight for another moment or two, and you can be done and out of there. If she is snorty, grab the calf by a leg, pull him toward you and get him iodined as she is distracted by licking up fluids or starting to lick on her end of the calf.

With a mean cow, it is best if two people work as a team. One to iodine the calf, the other to stand guard and threaten the cow with a stick if she thinks about charging.

Usually a cow is most aggressive the first few hours after calving, or even the first day or two. After her baby gets a little older she won’t be quite as worried, she will still protect him from perceived danger but will be mellower and ease back into her old relationship with you as her caretaker and dominant "boss cow".

CHAPTER 9 - CALF HEALTH
Needless to say early detection and treatment of calfhood illnesses can make the difference between saving or loosing a calf. This section deals with problems and illnesses that may occur during the first few months of a calf's life.

Calf immunity – the role of antibodies.
Illness is brought about when the body is overwhelmed by infection. A healthy calf with strong immunity is less likely to become sick than one with poor immunity.

If an animal already has antibodies i.e. proteins that neutralize certain infections agents against a specific disease organism, then any time the organism invades the body again an army of white blood cells armed with antibodies converges on the site to kill the invader.

Exposure to one strain of an organism may result in immunity to that strain but not to other strains of the same organism. Antibody immunity depends on level of exposure, stress on the animal, and current health. A severe outbreak of disease may eventually break down healthy calf's immunity and may rapidly overwhelm a stressed animal's defenses.

A cow in a natural environment with lots of area to roam may not be exposed to many disease causing organisms. But most cattle are confined during some parts of the year in corrals, pens or pastures that have been contaminated by heavy cattle use and come into close contact with other cattle. When this is so there is more chance for spread of disease, but with vaccination and natural exposure to various pathogens, the cow develops many antibodies and strong immunity. During the last part of pregnancy these antibodies enter her colostrum so her calf will have instant immunity after his first nursing. The antibodies in colostrum are import to the newborn calf because he has little disease resistance of his own.

Passive Immunity:
Antibodies in the calf's bloodstream obtained via colostrum can fight off blood-borne infections caused by bacteria such as salmonella, pasteurella, and streptococcus, but they cannot directly prevent gut infections such as those caused by E coli. However, high levels of certain antibodies in the blood help reduce the severity of scours (diarrhea), and the antibodies from colostrum nursed in subsequent feedings that stay in the gut after the intestinal wall closes can attack any scours causing pathogens found there.

The number of colostral antibodies that fight scours such as E. coli can be increased by vaccinating the cow a few weeks ahead of calving. Some types of scours can be prevented by giving the calf a commercially prepared, concentrated antibody source or oral vaccine soon after birth i.e. the oral vaccine against rotavirus and coronavirus, which works if given within 4 to 6 hours after birth.

The main reason calves become sick in the first few weeks of life is inadequate passive immunity, meaning not enough antibodies were absorbed immediately after birth. As we mentioned before any calf that hasn't been able to nurse an adequate amount of colostrum within the first hour or two after birth should be helped, either bottle fed with colostrum, or by a stomach tube, or esophageal feeder. He needs about 5 percent of his body weight. A pint weighs about a pound so this means 1.5 quarts for a 60 pound calf, 2 quarts for an 80 pound calf, 2.5 quarts for a 100 pound calf. The calf needs another similar nursing about 6 hours later.

Active Immunity
At the age of 7 to 8 weeks a calf loose their temporary immunity. Antibody levels from passive immunity begin to wane at 3 to 4 weeks and this might be earlier for many heifer's calves. So the calf's own immune system must take over. The time it takes his immune system to gear up to ward off invaders varies, it depends on how strong his passive immunity was. If he had a high level of colostrum antibodies effectively neutralizing invading organisms, his own defenses are not stimulated to develop until that protection begins to wear off.

Antibodies gained through colostrum can also interfere with the effectiveness of vaccinations. If the calf is vaccinated young while he still has high levels of maternal antibodies his own immune system will not respond to antigens which is a substance invading the body that stimulates creation of protective antibodies in the bloodstream, in vaccine; they are being neutralized by the maternal antibodies. Most vaccines should be given at 8 weeks of age or older with a repeat booster shot 2 to 6 weeks after to make sure the calf's immune system will be able to respond.

Enterotoxemia:
This deadly calf illness caused by Clostridium perfringens is an example. It is a serious bacterial gut infection. If you vaccinate the mother cow ahead of calving, it is pointless to vaccinate the calf soon after it is born, antibodies in the cow's colostrum interfere with the production of active immunity. You must decide whether to vaccinate the cows or the calves, it doesn't work to do both. If you have problems with enterotoxemia in very young calves, vaccinate the cows. If you have problems in calves after they are a little older, vaccinate the calves at birth and not the cows.

The bacteria that cause enterotoxemia are usually present in the intestines of calves and only cause disease if they multiply rapidly and release toxins that are then absorbed into the bloodstream. When these bacteria change from dormant spore into active, multiplying form, they produce two types of toxins. When vaccinating against enterotoxemia, use a vaccine containing both C and D toxic.

Selenium Deficiency:
If cows do not have enough Selenium in their diets, calves may be born with a deficiency. Selenium is important for proper muscle development and function. If calves are deficient in this important element they may develop white muscle disease, so named because the red, meaty muscle fibers are replaced by white strands of connective tissue.

In calves, the muscle fibers of the heart are infiltrated by fibrous connective tissue. Since these cannot contract or conduct electrical impulses, the heart can not function properly and the calf dies – sudden death with no outward sign of disease. He is most likely to die during stress when the heart is trying to pump harder and faster.

White muscle disease is impossible to treat but very easy to prevent. Ask your vet if you live in a selenium deficient area. If you do he will give all new born calves an injection of the proper dose of selenium soon after birth. DO NOT GIE IT UNLESS IT IS NEEDED; EXCESS SELENIUM IS HARMFUL.

DETECTING ILLNESS IN YOUNG CALVES
Watch calves closely during the first weeks of life. They learn a lot about their state of health by their behavior, and you learn to distinguish telltale hints.

The subtle clues gleaned from careful observation give you a head start on treating a problem before it becomes serious or even life threatening. The sooner an illness is detected and treated the more chance of recovery.

SIGNS OF ILLNESS
There are many signs that help you to spot trouble before it become critical, besides the obvious messy hind end of scours (diarrhea) or the labored breathing of pneumonia. Very often a calf will be dull before he goes down with diarrhea or goes down with pneumonia. Watch for a calf that does not nurse or lies down, or is off by himself when the rest are up and playing. Feeding time is an opportunity to observe signs of illness and check mother's udders. Any cow with a full or partially full udder is an alert signal – you should locate its calf and take a close look at him.

A dull calf may not be detected with casual observation. You need to really look at calves and view the herd for awhile. If the weather has been wet and there is no dry place on the ground, calves may lie in the hay because its dry especially if they have been standing due to damp weather. But a calf that lies down when all the others are eating needs a closer look.

Dullness A calf with intestinal pain or high fever will be dull, its ears will be down instead of alert. He is not interested in his surroundings and is slow in his movements. Also he will not be alarmed when you get close to him as he would be if he was well.

A calf with a fever may or may not have sweat droplets on his nose. Take his temperature. Fever can make him listless and go off feed. Fever can also dehydrate him, any calf with a fever should be treated and given fluids by tube if he is not nursing. Usual cause of fever is pneumonia, but other problems can elevate temperature as well. Call your vet for diagnosis.

Gut pain If a calf has gut pain he will kick at his belly, and get up and down a lot, or stand stretched out trying to ease the pain. If the pain is severe he may run wildly as if trying to get away from it. At first glance you may think he is feeling ok and simply running and playing, but then you will see he is running frantically. He may lie down or throw himself on the ground, only to get up and run again. Or, he may stagger and lurch about, legs buckling, sinking into the ground in pain. If these signs are apparent they are usually caused by acute gut infection and should be treated immediately to keep the bacterial toxins from damaging his gut lining and leaking through to the bloodstream to attack the rest of the body, and killing him.

Some calves that have recovered from digestive tract infection have mild pain when the gut lining that was damaged sloughs away and leaves raw sore spot, similar to an ulcer. They go off feed and do not nurse enough. They may pick at hay but start looking gaunt, lacking the brightness and vitality of a healthy calf.

A calf with mild gut pain may fiddle at his mother's teats but not nurse very much. Its mother may bawl because her udder is full. These calves may need treatment to soothe the raw spots in the gut – mineral oil works well for this – and may have to be force-fed milk whenever they do not nurse until the gut lining heals. But these cases are often neglected because the calf has got diarrhea and does not have pneumonia, but he can be vulnerable because of his run down condition. This problem can affect calves up to several months of age.

Grinding the teeth is another sign of mild gut pain. You may think he is just chewing his cud, but if you watch for a moment you will see he is chewing too diligently and swiftly, or making grating noises. He may also slobber and drool from the concentrated chewing and may burp up extra cud and fluid.

Going off feed. Another condition that causes moderate abdominal pain and makes a calf go off feed and become dull is a plugged gut. Calves like to chew on things they should not, for example baling twine, wads of hair on a fence where cattle rub, plastic bags and litter. Young calves eat dirt mud, or sand. Any of these can plug the digestive tract, causing the calf to suffer gut pain or bloat. If the blockage does not resolve, the calf will die unless the problem is surgically corrected. If a calf is dull and full looking but will not nurse, suspect a blocked digestive tract, especially if he is dry behind and not passing any bowel movement.

Blocked gut can cause obvious abdominal pain, but usually the calf is just dull. Nothing is passing through because the digestive tract ahead of the blockage becomes distended. Some calves bloat, but usually the fullness is in intestines rather than rumen, the abdomen gets large – a general fullness instead of high left side from a bloated rumen. A calf plugged with dirt may have dirt around his mouth.

Increased susceptibility to cold: 
Even in cold or wet weather, most normal healthy calves continue some activity and are bright and playful. The may seek a windbreak or shelter but they are still lively. On the other hand a sick calf has trouble keeping body temperature within a comfortable range, especially if he has a fever or has become dehydrated. He chills easily and may be shivering more than other calves and more reluctant to move. If a calf seems abnormally cold and miserable, he may be suffering from a problem that has compromised his ability to stay warm.

Sick calves:
Sick calves spend a lot of time lying down. Young calves sleep a lot, but when they are not sleeping they are exploring, bucking, and playing. But illness takes away its energy. The slow or sluggish calf spending most of his time lying around should be checked closely, especially if it’s a time of day when calves are generally active. Early in the morning, before it warms up, calves tend to be slow to get up and about, and during the heat of the day they all nap. But in the cool of the evening they become playful. If all his playmates are lively and he isn't, you better check him out. 

HOW TO MANAGE SCOURS- DIARRHEA
Scours – diarrhea – is the most common symptom of gut infection in a baby calf. Some types of gut infection are so acute they can kill a calf before diarrhea begins. Scours is mainly a problem of contamination. The young calf comes in contact with another sick calf or with bacteria in his environment found in dirt, mud, manure or on a cow's dirty udder. Call your vet and get him to identify the infection. Most vets recommend a certain vaccine only after evaluating the herd history and disease risk. Cleanliness is the key to prevention, make sure feed troughs are free from dirt, mud, manure etc. If a calf has to nurse from a dirty udder several times a day don't be surprised if he gets sick, he is at high risk for scours.

Carry a thermometer when checking calves. A temperature rise is often 2 days ahead of scours symptoms. Normal temperature is 101.5F degrees, any reading over 102.5F degrees justifies on the spot treatment.

Do not put young calves or ready to calve cows where there is manure buildup or in pastures where calves have already been sick. If cows lie down in a place where a calf has scoured, or if a recently calved cow has left drainage and pus, the young calf will ingest bacteria with his first nursings from the dirty udder – even antibodies from colostrum cannot protect him in time.

Separation of pregnant cows from calved out cows:
As we mentioned before use plenty of bedding in holding pens where you watch cows that are ready to calve if the weather is wet. Always have a dry, clean place for cows to lie down. Have a clean calving area, and move cows out as soon as they calve. 

Minimize animal concentration, stress and contamination;
Establish your management practices around ways to do this. For example wash teats of any cow or heifer you must work closely with at calving time, clean equipment thoroughly, especially esophageal feeder or stomach tube, that are necessary to give colostrum to a new calf or fluids to a sick calf.


Provide shelter from bad weather:
Stress from a storm lowers a calf's resistance to disease, also infectious organisms thrive in wet conditions and calves can pick up bacteria when they drink from puddles, nibble mud or dirt, or a muddy udder.
  
Calving in a dry season:
Calves are better of born in a dry season when the ground is not wet and soggy. You may wish to calve in winter when the ground is frozen. In many places in the world, spring is the worst for mud and changeable, stressful weather when the calf needs greater attention.

Move calves out of the barn within 24 hours:
If your calves are born in a barn move each pair out quickly and never keep sick calves in the calving barn. Use a separate facility if a sick calf needs shelter. Use well bedded pens for cow and calf when they come out of th barn, or put them into a clean pasture if the weather is good.

Group calves according to age:
Scours can be prevented if you never put new calves with older ones. The field where older calves are living is already contaminated if any have been sick. Put younger ones in a separate group where they will have a chance to get past the critical age i.e. the first 3 weeks, before they start scouring.

Keep calves in small groups:
Keeping calves in small groups ensures less contamination in feeding and bedding areas. If a calf scours, treat him immediately – never wait to see if he will get better. Early treatment enables him to recover more quickly and reduces the amount of contamination he spreads around the pasture. Isolate the sick calf; bring him and his mother to a doctoring pen until he has recovered.

Always check your calves morning and evening, look at the cow's udders – often the first sign of illness is the calf is not nursing.

TREATING SCOURS (DIARRHEA) AND GUT INFECTIONS IN CALVES
As soon as your vet has determined which type of scours is affecting your calf treat it promptly. The killer in most types of scours is dehydration, so more often than not the best way to help the calf is to replace the fluids he is losing.

In early or mild cases the calf is still strong and lively, but as dehydration progresses he becomes dull and weak, his mouth dry, skin less elastic, and eyes sunken. Legs become cold due to inadequate blood circulation. If dehydration is not reverse he will be too weak to stand or nurse, with body temperature dropping into subnormal range. It not treated with large amounts of fluid, he will lapse into a coma and die.

In some cases the killer is endotoxic shock – that is shock caused by body systems shutting down in reaction to bacterial poisons – when bacterial toxins affect various organs, at which time the calf goes into shock and dies quickly before he has a chance to scour. In such cases the immediate problem is to stop the multiplying bacteria and their toxins with the proper antibiotics and reverse the shock. If the calf is to be given fluids intravenously a veterinarian may be needed.

Viral versus Bacterial Sours:
Some types of treatment are effective for one kind of scours but not another. Your vet will be able to determine whether you are fighting a viral or bacterial scours, or protozoa such as coccidiosis which is an intestinal disease and diarrhea, or cryptosporidium which may also cause diarrhea in humans, and recommend the proper treatment.

Viral scours tend to hit during the first 2 weeks of life, whereas bacterial scours can attack a calf at any age. Some bacterial toxins just damage the gut so the calf cannot absorb fluid and nutrients and he becomes dehydrated and weak. Other types are absorbed through the gut lining into the body and quickly kill the calf unless the infection is halted early on.

Treatment:
Except for acute toxin-forming infections, most scours are deadliest in the first weeks of life. On the other hand, a month old calf may handle it and recover without treatment, or perhaps minimal treatment, whereas the same infection in a week old calf might prove fatal unless diligently treated to stop the adverse effects of dehydration.

Providing fluids (water and electrolytes) in the early stage of diarrhea, while the calf is still strong. They can be given with a stomach tube or esophageal feeder. Oral fluids are effective because the gut is still able to absorb them. However, as the disease progresses and the gut lining becoming more damaged and more dehydrated, the calf becomes weaker and unable to absorb fluid from the gut. When this is the case the only way to save him is with intravenous fluids. Be diligent in your observation and checking of the calf.

As we mentioned earlier the sick calf and its mother should be placed in a separate pen, or if the weather is severe in a barn, where you can keep him warm and dry and is easy to catch for doctoring. He should be given fluids every 6 to 8 hours, or even more often if quite young or severely dehydrated.

Viral scours do not respond to antibiotics, but you can help the calf greatly by giving fluid and electrolytes because important salts are lost through dehydration, you should also give the gut soothers such as Kaopectate or Pepto Bismol. Antibiotics are of use only to combat possible secondary bacterial infections.


Doaproof is a product that helps viral scours, it comes in the form of a packet and is added to the fluid you give the calf. The active ingredient coats the surface of the small intestine and helps it absorb electrolytes and glucose more rapidly. The mucilin-gel product "Deliver" works in the same way. These can help a dehydrated calf with viral scours but are not good for a calf with bacterial scours and can prove deadly for a calf with scours caused by toxin producing bacteria. Both Diaporiif and Deliver increase absorption of fluids in a damaged gut and also increase absorption of toxins, resulting in rapid death. If you are sure you are dealing with viral scours then use one of these mediations. But when in doubt don’t do not risk it.

Antibiotics:
Pills or boluses are not as effective against scours as a good liquid antibiotic because they have been found unabsorbed in the stomach of calves that died. However, if no antibiotic is available then crush or dissolve them and then add them to an electrolyte fluid or give by syringe, squirting into the back of the calf's mouth.

When giving oral antibiotics to a calf, remember they tend to kill all bacteria, including the good ones needed for proper digestion. Overdoses of antibiotics – that is taken over too many days in a row – can prolong diarrhea or alter normal bacterial population, making the calf more susceptible to fungal infections. If a sick calf must be on oral antibiotics for several days, re-establish his proper intestinal microbes with a commercial product containing lactobacillus.

Administering electrolytes:
When giving a dehydrated calf fluids orally add electrolytes, they are salts composed of elements needed for cell function, (a homemade electrolyte recipe follows) and are given either by stomach tube or esophageal feeder. If he is weak add a couple of tablespoons of honey, karo syrup or other sugars, that is glucose in nature, along with the liquid antibiotic and Kaopectate so that all medications can be given at one.

Sodium and potassium are crucial to the scouring calf, and in serious cases, so is sodium bicarbonate. When he scours, chemical changes occur in the gut and body with build up of acids (acidosis). Normal pH of body fluids is slightly alkaline. Acidosis changes this and can drop the pH dramatically, leading to coma and death. Sodium bicarbonate neutralizes acidosis, and the potassium and sodium replace it with what the body needs to get back to normal again. Some commercial preparations make acidosis worse because they do not contain bicarbonates.

If a calf needs treatment for more than 1 or 2 days, do not overdo the baking soda or alkaline based commercial electrolytes. If using a homemade mix, leave out the baking soda after the first couple of days. If using commercial products, ask your vet which one to use.

It is best to leave the calf with its mother. The calf should be encouraged to nurse as much as possible to keep up fluid and energy intake. If the calf is too sick to nurse it can get by on electrolyte solutions – that is 2 quarts every 6 hours for the first 24 hours, but after that he needs food. If he is still not nursing, milk out the cow and feed the calf 10% of his body weight in milk daily – divided into 4 feedings – by tube or esophageal feeder.

If you detect and attend to scours early and give oral fluids diligently, no calf should ever need intravenous fluids to restore his fluid and electrolyte balance except in cases of acute and toxic gut infections in which you must also combat shock. 

Electrolyte Recipe:
When using any kind of electrolyte mix – commercial packet or homemade – mix up with water only the amount you are going to use at one time. If a mix sits too long before use, it may separate or change and lose its potency.

Add the following ingredients to 2 quarts of warm water:
Half teaspoon table salt (sodium chloride)
Quarter teaspoon lite salt (sodium chloride, potassium chloride)
Quarter teaspoon baking soda (sodium bicarbonate)

For a dehydrated calf give fluid and electrolyte mix every 6 – 8 hours until he feels well enough to nurse again and bowel movements begin to firm up. In a young calf with severe diarrhea, you may need to give it more often i.e. sometimes every 3 hours. The liquid antibiotic is only needed once a day in one of your electrolyte feedings.

Caution: Do not mix electrolytes containing bicarbonate with milk, because this can prevent curd formation and aggravate diarrhea. If feeding milk to a weak calf, wait 2 – 3 hours after the milk feeding before giving fluid with electrolytes.


Endotox shock:
(serious bacterial gut infection in calves causes by Clostridium perfringens:
A calf may be fine in the morning and dying of endotoxic shock before evening, or get sick in the night and be dead by morning. If the problem is enterotoxemia, calves can be vaccinated at birth or given antitoxin to prevent it, and later given a booster shot at 6 to 8 weeks of age, or antitoxin for treatment at first signs of illness. But certain other toxin forming bacteria also cause severe illness, with no vaccines to prevent them.

These calves can be saved if you find them before they go into shock. The hard part is checking often enough to find them in time to treat them. They must be treated swiftly with castor oil and a good oral antibiotic i.e. neomycin sulfate solution. NEVER GIVE CASTOR OIL OR MINERAL OIL BY MOUTH, IF A CALF GETS AY DOWN HIS WINDPIPE AND INTO THE LUNGS HE WILL DEVELOP A FATAL PNEUMONIA, IT IS BEST TO GIVE IT BY STOMACH TUBE . Toxins from this type of acute bacterial infection shut down the calf's gut and cause bloat or severe pain. Castor oil starts the gut moving again and also binds with the neutralized toxins. Neomycin helps halt the infection, put some into small pumper bottle to carry in your coat pocket when checking calves give 1cc per 40 pounds of body weight or 2 to 3 cc for a young calf, which is equal to about 7 squirts from most pumper bottles.

This type of infection can kill a calf quickly. The cow is generally nursed out, the calf has not gone off feed and feels fine until suddenly hit with severe gut pain or bloat. Calves as young as a week old may be affected, but the usual victim is between 3 weeks and 3 months of age, any time after the temporary antibody protection from the mother's colostrum begins to wear off.

Reduce the risk by making sure your pastures are clean.

If a calf has abdominal pain or is dull and bloated, treat it as an emergency, giving castor oil and neomycin by stomach tube. Use 3 to 6 ounces of castor oil depending on calf size, mix it with a little hot water to help the thick oil go down the tube. Put a dose of neomycin sulfate with it i.e. 1 teaspoon per 100 pounds of body weight). The oil mix can be forced down the tube with a large syringe. If using an esophageal feeder, the feeder bag can be taken off – castor oil is too thick to flow unless the probe tube is large in diameter – and a large syringe used to force the oil down the probe.

If the calf is treated with castor oil and antibiotic before he goes into shock, recovery is dramatic. He feels better in an hour or two, and if he was bloated the bloat is resolved. But if toxins have already damaged the gut lining so much that they can slip through into the blood stream, the calf will be going into shock, bacterial poisons attack all body organs, causing a massive shutdown. The calf will be lying on the ground and unable to get up. Circulation fails, mouth and legs become cold and temperature drops, kidneys and lungs start to fail and not long after he slips into a coma and dies.

If he has just begun to suffer circulatory failure, shock can be reversed if the calf is given intravenous fluids, adrenalin, and dexamethasone. But there is only a short time in which shock can be reversed before serious damage is done. Kidneys and liver are detoxification systems and if they shut down the toxins build up even more quickly. These calves must be given intravenous fluids, the sooner the better to combat circulatory failure and to dilute concentrations of toxins already in the bloodstream. The fluid will also stimulate kidney function. If urine production can be restored in a toxic calf, he has a chance for recovery.

Relieving serious bloat:
If a calf is quite bloated there might not be time to give castor oil and there is no room in the stomach for fluids. You must relieve the bloat so he can breathe otherwise he will suffocate. The distended rumen is putting pressure on the lungs. First of all the calf must be restrained and held against a fence or backed into a corner, unless he is down on the ground about to suffocate. The quickest way to relieve pressure is to stick the distended rumen with a large, sterile need i.e. 16 gauge 2 – 3 inches long – this gets a lot of gas out in hurry!

If he bloats up again, repeat the process after giving oil, relieving the boat until the oil has time to work. ALWAYS USE A STERILE NEEDLE  AND BE SURE IT GOES INTO THE RUMEN – ON THE CALF'S LEFT SIDE IN THE TRIANGULAR SPOT BETWEEN THE HIPBONE AND THE LAST RIB, AN AREA USUALLY SOMEHWAT SOFT AND HOLLOW. In a bloated calf this area protrudes like a full balloon. Jab through the skin with the needle, on through the intestinal lining and into the distended rumen  - all these tissues are pressed tightly together on a bloated calf. Gas should start rushing out through the needle. Hold the needle in place until the gas is all out – the rumen no longer bulges upward – and he is able to breathe normally again. If the needle plugs, wiggle it around or attach a smaller syringe to it and blow the plug out. You can also inject a dose of liquid neomycin through the needle.

Using a Stomach tube:
A stomach tube is a god way to get fluid and medication into a sick calf that will neither eat nor drink. It can be used on large calves or cows with a larger diameter tube for older animals, whereas an esophageal probe only works for baby calves.  A stomach tube is the easiest way to give oil to an animal as it can be forced down the tube with a large syringe. If the animal is bloated you can often get gas back out of the tube when you insert it. It is almost impossible to get gas out through an esophageal probe.

For calves, use a flexible plastic tube 5 to 6 feet long with 5/16th inch outside diameter (3/16 inch inside). You can buy clear plastic tubing. Sand one end so it is smooth, making a round edge that won't scrape the calf's passages. THE TUBE SHOULD BE CLEAN AND FLEXIBLE - ALWAYS RINSE IT IN DISINFECTANT BETWEEN CALVES. In cold weather the tube may be stiff, soften it by putting it in warm water, taking it out of the water just before use – blow all the water out of it before putting it into the calf.

The tube is put into one nostril, to the back of the throat, where the calf must swallow it so it goes down to the stomach. It goes down most easily if his nose is tucked toward his chest, it is easier to swallow the tube and the tube is not likely to get into the windpipe. If the head and neck are stretched out the tube may go into the windpipe instead. A calf may constrict the muscles inside the nostril - start the tube in quickly before he sees it coming.

Make sure the tube is in the stomach and not the windpipe – if it is in the windpipe you will drown the calf when you give him fluid or oil. Usually a calf coughs if the tube starts to go into the windpipe, because it irritates the air passage. If the tube goes down easily quite a way, it is in the esophagus; it can’t go far down the windpipe. If it goes down more than 2 feet it is in the stomach, but check to make sure. Once in place, that is in at least 2 feet, preferably 3 feet on a large calf – blow on your end. If it makes noises or you smell stomach gas coming out – it's the stomach! If blowing makes him cough it is in his air passages – take it out and start over again before attaching the syringe or funnel.

You can use a tube to get colostrum into a new calf that cannot nurse – for newborns use a smaller diameter tube, the size vets use for dogs – or to give it fluid, electrolytes, or other medications to any calf with diarrhea. A handy funnel can be made from an empty, well-washed plastic bleach bottle by cutting the bottom off and taping the neck of it to a short piece of clean gas-line hose. Use electrical tape to secure it to the hose. The gas line hose has the proper diameter to fit over the end of the stomach tube. When the tube is inserted into the calf attach your handy funnel so that you can pour the fluid or medication down the stomach tube.

A stomach tube is also a good tool to use when treating a bloated calf. If you hit a gas pocket when you put the tube into a bloated calf, the gas will rush out your end. Let off as much gas as will come, moving the tube in and out a little to try to relieve as much gas as possible then give the oil.

Use a large syringe – 140cc syringe works well. It helps to mix the oil - 3 ounces for a small calf, up to 6 – 7 ounces for a larger one – with an equal amount of hot water, shake it up in the jar, then suck the mixture into the syringe. Castor oil is much thicker than mineral oil and should be warm – but not so hot that it burns the calf!

Have some warm water to suck up into the syringe afterward, to force it down the tube and flush all the oil on into the stomach, otherwise some will be left in the tube. Blow the water on down so the tube is empty, then put thumb or finger over your end so it won't drip fluid while you swiftly, but gently pull the tube out.

When the gut gets damaged:
Even after a calf seems to have recovered from an acute infection he should be watched closely. He may feel better after bloat or colic, or toxic shock are reversed but then go off feed for a few days later and become, dull and listless, refuse to nurse, grind his teeth or chew madly though he may only nibble hay and drink water.
This is an indication of acute infection may have damaged the gut lining so much it sheds off in a few days – similar to burned skin. You may see mucus or gut lining in the calf's manure. The raw spots cause pain and he is reluctant to nurse because he hurts. He may stand by his mother's udder but does not suck much. You may have to milk out the cow from drying up and to keep the calf fed until he starts to nurse regularly again.

You can tube the calf with mineral oil, Pepto-Bismol, or Kaopectate to soothe the sore gut, and you can give milk by tube on the days he does not nurse. Some calves may also need lactobacilli – which is rumen bacteria – to get proper digestion going again. 

Coccidiosis in calves:
Young animals are easily affected. A calf may pick up coccidian by eating contaminated feed or water or licking itself after lying on dirty ground or bedding. It takes 16 – 30 days for symptoms to appear. The calf will develop watery brown diarrhea possibly tinged with blood, or pass a lot of blood with the feces. Coccidiosis is often a problem in weaned calves but can also be devastating in young calves especially when the weather is wet and they are congregated in small areas or confined in dirty pens and pastures. What occurs is that the protozoa multiply in the large intestine, destroying the lining. The calf may strain a lot when passing the runny bowel movements, and may prolapse the rectum.

Antibiotic treatment for calves with coccidiosis is no help, since the life cycle of the organism has already run its course by the time diarrhea begins. Supportive treatment such as fluids can benefit the calf. Other calves in the herd should be protected by giving them medications before they show symptoms. Ask your vet to recommend ways in which to treat your sick animal.

Cryptosporidiosis:
This type of diarrhea can also affect humans, and can be very serious to those with low immunity, it is caused by another intestinal parasite called Cryptosporidia. Always wash your hands well after tending to an animal with this illness. Symptoms include watery diarrhea, no appetite, and weight loss, and the calf becomes severely dehydrated. Calves are susceptible between the ages of 5 to 20 days.

A fecal sample under a microscope can be diagnosed by your vet. As with coccidiosis, antibiotics are not helpful. Electrolyte solutions given intravenously can reverse dehydration. The calf should be fed milk if he is not nursing, and electrolyte fluid by a tube. Pepto-Bismol or Kaopectate may slow the diarrhea and help him to survive until the gut begins to heal. If he is going to get better the recovery occurs in about 10 days. The best prevention is the quarantining of animals with the disease and to make sure all calves get adequate colostrum when they are born. 

PNEUMONIA IN YOUNG CALVES
The most dangerous illness for young calves is diarrhea, pneumonia runs a close second.

Any severe stress can bring on pneumonia, such as wet cold weather, sudden extreme changes in weather, a long truck haul or even overcrowding. Pathogens that cause pneumonia are always present into the calf's environment, sickness occurs when immunity is poor or resistance is lowered by stress. Pneumonia can be caused by viruses or bacteria. Viral pneumonia may be complicated by secondary bacterial infection. The actual killer is generally a bacteria that moves in after the lungs have been damaged by the virus.

Each of the following promote pneumonia, a newborn calf in a drafty barn, a young calf in a moist barn with poor ventilation, saturated bedding, high humidity. Young calves are often most susceptible to viral pneumonia between the age of 2 weeks and 2 months when their temporary immunity from colostrum starts to decline.

Symptoms of Pneumonia:
Spotting the early signs of pneumonia is important. If you start the treatment early on it is easier to clear it up then if you wait until the calf is really sick. 

The calf about to go down with pneumonia usually goes off its feed. It lies around, or stands humped up looking depressed and dull. Ears may droop instead of being perky and alert. Respiration may be fast or labored. His movements are slow because he is in pain.

Mild cases have a cough and noisy breath, or dry, crusty noise. Severe cases have difficulty breathing and might even breathe with their mouth open or a grunting sound as air is forced out of impaired lungs. Nasal discharge may be clear and runny, or thick with mucus.

Some calves with acute viral pneumonia die in a few hours, but many cases of uncomplicated viral pneumonia recover within 4 to 7 days. If bacteria are involved, then fever, difficult breathing and toxemia are worse.

To help you diagnose use a thermometer. Any calf with a fever should be treated with antibiotics. Keep a thermometer in your pocket. Feel the nose or inside the mouth, the skin may feel hot and moist if there is a fever. However, during cold weather a calf with pneumonia may not be breathing rapidly and may have a cool nose without droplets of sweat, and cool skin. The best way to make an accurate diagnosis is to take his temperature.

How to take a calf's temperature:
You can use either an animal or human rectal thermometer. Tape or tie a string to the end so you do not lose it in the rectum. Shake it down below 98 degrees Fahrenheit and lubricate it with Vaseline or saliva so it will slip easily into the rectum and not cause discomfort. Gently lift the tail and insert the thermometer, aiming it slightly upward and slipping it in with a twisting motion. Keep track of it – the calf may push it out with manure. Hold onto the string just in case! Leave it in at least 2 minutes to get an accurate reading. Normal calf temperature is 101.5 degrees Fahrenheit. If he runs a temperature over 103 degrees he needs antibiotics. On the other hand if he is chilled or has been sick awhile and is dying or going into shock his temperature is subnormal.

Treatment of Calf's Pneumonia:
If he has viral pneumonia he will not respond to antibiotics, but a calf with this illness should be treated anyway to prevent secondary bacterial infection. Use a long acting, broad spectrum antibiotic such as sulfamethazine, oxytetracycline, micotil – ask your vet which works best in your area.

Good, early supportive treatment and intensive care are as crucial as antibiotics and may make the difference whether you save him or lose him. This means sheltering, keeping him warm and dry, bringing him into a heated barn or under a heat lamp. The calf will also need plenty of fluids. If he isn’t nursing you must force feed him. He may also need medication to reduce pain and fever and to ease difficult breathing.

Fluids are crucial if a calf has a fever or if you are using sulfa in treatment. Giving sulfa to dehydrated a calf can cause kidney damage. There must be adequate fluid in the body or his kidneys will be irreversibly damaged and the calf will die.

If he is experiencing difficulty breathing, inject an expectorant recommended by your vet to break up congestion in the lungs. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) reduces fluid in the lungs – check with your vet – it reduces swelling and inflammation. It also has antibiotic properties. It can be given intravenously but is just as effective and easier to give orally. Use 2 cc per 100 pounds of body weight mixed with a little warm water in a syringe to squirt into the calf's mouth. Mix it with warm water to stay fluid in cold weather because it will solidify below 50 degrees Fahrenheit. Do not get DMSO on your skin because it is absorbed immediately and you can taste it.

Keep the calf as comfortable as possible when reducing his pain and fever. He will feel better and start nursing and eating sooner, as he gets the fluid and energy he so desperately needs. A very effective drug is Banamine (flunixin meglumine) which used for hoses with colic. It reduces pain, fever and inflammation, coughing, respiratory rate, temperature and discomfort, as well as lung congestion. It can be obtained from your vet and injected intramuscularly. Or you can dissolve 2 aspirins (human type) in water and squirt the mix into his mouth by syringe.

Be diligent with antibiotic treatment. When fighting a serious pneumonia, do not quit to soon. Keep giving antibiotics at least 2 full days after all symptoms are gone and the temperature is normal again. A relapse can be much harder to treat, and chances of saving the calf are greatly reduced. Persistence is the best weapon against pneumonia.

DIPTHERIA IN CALVES
Infection in mouth and throat caused by Fusobacterium necrophorus can develop in calves. It is the same bacteria that causes Footrot and navel infections. The bacteria is present in the calf's environment most of the time, stress, as well as injury to membranes of mouth or throat can lead the way for infection. Mouth injuries are sometimes caused by coarse feed, sharp seeds such as cheatgrass, foxtail, barley beards.

Symptoms:
If the infection is just in the mouth, the calf may have a mild fever of 103 – 104 degrees Fahrenheit , they are dull and off their feed. He may slobber and drool with swellings in the cheek areas. When examining the mouth it may reveal deep ulcers in the membranes of cheeks or tongue, and his breath may smell foul! He may still eat and nurse but he slobbers too much and may have noisy breathing, especially if he exercises.

The illness is more serious if the throat becomes affected. Swelling at the back of the throat can constrict the windpipe and make breathing difficult. Should the swelling shut off air passages the calf will die unless a slit is cut into his windpipe to allow him to breathe. CALL YOUR VET IMMEDIATELY, IMMEDIATE ATTENTION IS NECESSARY.

Treatment:
Administer antibiotics immediately. Sulfas and tetracyclines work very well together for this. Ulcers in the mouth usually heal in a few days if swabbed daily with tincture of iodine. Anti-inflammatory drugs such as demamethasone reduce throat swelling in serious cases, but DMSO – DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE -is often better because it does not compromise the immune system like steroids do. DMSO can be given as an oral gargle (2 cc per 100 pounds of body weight, mixed with warm water and squirted into the back of the mouth with a syringe – a little at a time as the calf swallow its) Treatment should be started before swelling is excessive or complication such as pneumonia set in. Keep the calf on the antibiotics until it has fully recovered.


NAVEL INFECTIONS AND JOINT ILLNESS

When calves are born on clean pasture or clean bedding they are least likely to develop navel illness. Most cases are caused by a dirty environment, infection enters the moist navel shortly after birth. Flies also spread bacteria to the navel.

Symptoms:
A calf with navel illness may show symptoms soon after birth. It becomes lethargic, indifferent to nursing, weak, and reluctant to get up. Infection may spread from the navel to cause acute and fatal septicemia. Or the disease may become a chronic condition after localizing in organs or joints. Eye inflammation may develop soon after birth. Swollen joints and lameness may be the primary symptom, but abscesses may also be present in the liver, kidneys spleen or lungs.

Treatment:
Broad-spectrum antibiotics are effective if administered early. There is a chance for recovery if there is no irreparable damage to joints or internal organs. Ask your vet which antibiotic suits your situation. If arthritis or an abscess is already present, then a long course of antibiotics will be needed i.e. two weeks or more. Dosage should be kept fairly high and treatment given often to keep adequate levels of antibiotic in the bloodstream. An umbilical abscess should be surgically treated, it is to be lanced with a sharp knife or scalpel to drain the pus and then flushed with antiseptic solution and antibiotics.

Navel illness can be stubborn. So be persistent and continue treatment several days after the calf appears to have recovered. Most cases lost are due to starting treatment too late or not continuing it long enough.

TIPS ON HOW TO CATCH CALVES THAT NEED TO BE DOCTORED
Needless to say, proper treatment is crucial to save sick baby calves. But to treat a calf, first of all you have to catch him and avoid interference from his mother. Always have a healthy respect for a protective mother, but also demand that she respect you. Work in pairs when catching a calf to doctor.

For a calf that needs a one-time treatment, two people are required – one to distract the calf, and the other to grab a hind leg. During feeding time you can grab the baby among the cows without him seeing you sneaking up using cows to block his view, and while the mother is eating her hay you can doctor him. 

If the calf is too large to grab or suspicious from earlier catches he may have to be brought into a smaller pen where you can corner him.

One way is to snag him with a sheep hook. With a long handle on a shepherd's crook you can grab a hind leg without getting close enough to spook him. The two person decoy helps the calf-snagger get into position to catch a hind leg with the hook. It takes strength to hang onto a big calf with the hook, and some calves may manage to kick free.

One way to catch an elusive calf out at pasture when you don't have a sheep hook or lariat is to make an instant chute, running the calf behind a solid gate and catching him in a narrow V made by the gate and fence. Or, run him between the fence and feed truck after parking it against the fence at an angle, herding the calf along the fence into the trap. This works best if you are feeding hay and string it close to the fence – with all the cows eating nearby. A calf does not get suspicious or wild if he is close to other cattle. Gently ease him through the herd along the fence and into the trap before he knows it. A net wire or pole fence makes the best wing for a trap, a calf can shimmy through a barbed wire fence and get away – DO NOT TRY THIS WITH AN ELECTRIC FENCE.


FLANKING A CALF
For some management procedures or doctoring, the calf must be on the ground. The easiest way to lie him down without hurting him, or you, is to flank him. Stand close, reach over his back, and grab hold of the flank skin with one hand and the front leg at the knee with your other hand. Then lift him off his feet, gently lowering him to the ground. To hold him still while on his side, kneel down and hold his front leg with is bent at the knee so he cannot rise. Rest your knee on his neck or shoulder to keep him from struggling.

GIVING FLUIDS INTRAVENOUSLY (INTO A VEIN)
OR SUBCUTANEOUSLY (UNDER THE SKIN
A dehydrated calf that becomes too weak to stand needs fluid immediately. If he is unable to absorb enough through the gut he will need to be given it either intravenously or subcutaneously. If unsure about giving IV fluids yourself, or if you cannot get the needle into his jugular vein, inject fluid under the skin. If you have a liter of sterile IV electrolyte solution give it subcutaneously. Do this by filling a large syringe and slip the needle under the skin – anywhere on a clean area with loose skin, such as neck and shoulders – inject 30 – 40 cc at a time until the entire liter is injected. You can change injection sites as you work. The calf can absorb subcutaneous fluid in a few minutes, by the time you run out of places to inject the fluid will be absorbed from the first locations and you can use them again.

A calf that is severely dehydrated is also very acidotic and needs sodium bicarbonate as well as fluids. A calf weight 80 pounds that is very weak and dehydrated needs almost 4 liters of fluids for replacement immediately, plus 3 – 4 more liters in the next 24 hours. Repeat even more if scouring is severe because fluids are still being lost. An acidotic calf does not absorb well subcutaneously because all systems are severely shut down, especially kidneys, liver, and fluid transport. These calves need IV fluids and a vet immediately. Happily to say most recover if treated promptly.

USING AN ESOPHAGEAL FEEDER
The esophageal feeder is a tube or stainless steel probe that goes down the calf's esophagus about 16 inches to the thoracic inlet. A bulb on the end prevents it from entering the larynx and trachea, and also prevents backflow of fluids up the esophagus. When the calf is properly restrained and the tube is carefully placed, it is a very effective way of giving fluids. Injury may result, however, when the calf struggles, this can cause trauma to the esophagus.

Put the steel tube gently into the calf's mouth, but first warm it in hot water if the weather is cold, and move it along the tongue to the back of the mouth, where he should swallow it as you gently push it down. Make sure the tube is not forced into the windpipe instead of the esophagus. The calf must be given time to swallow as it is pushed down. Check for puffs of air coming out your end – if air comes out the tube is in the windpipe and must be taken out and put into the esophagus before you pour any fluid into it

HOW TO GIVE ORAL MEDICATIONS
Pills and boluses can be given with a balling gun which is a long handled tool that holds the pill and placed in the back of the mouth and then the plunger is pressed. Once it is put far back into the mouth the pill will be swallowed when the balling gun releases it.

Giving liquid oral medication is easy with a large syringe but without the needle. Fill the syringe to proper dosage and slowly squirt medication into the back of the mouth. If you stick it in the corner and aim it far back the calf will have to swallow it. Liquid antibiotics, pills dissolved in water, or medications such as Kaopectate or Pepto-Bismol can be given by syringe. For a large dose give a little at a time and allow him to swallow before you squirt the rest. Keep his head tipped up so the medication cannot run back out of his mouth.

BROKEN BONES
There are times when a baby calf is injured at birth or soon after, as when pulled too hard with a calf-puller or stepped on by its mother. Leg bones usually mend swiftly if splinted for 1 to 3 weeks. Even a broken jaw can be successfully mended if the displaced pieces of bone are realigned and the jaw taped shut. Hold the jaw immobile for a couple of weeks with a strong adhesive tape until the break knits back together – and feed the calf milk by stomach tube through the nostril. It is amazing how rapidly young animals can heal – so do not despair if you have a calf with a serious injury, there is often a way to help him recover.

BIRTH DEFECTS IN YOUNG CALVES
Some birth defects are due to genetic weaknesses, some to nutritional deficiencies or toxins encountered during gestation.

Umbilical hernia:
Sometimes the abdominal wall at the navel area does not close up properly after the calf is born, when this is the case there will be a bulge at the navel. Check whether the enlargement is an abscess or hernia. An abscess is a firm swelling; a hernia is soft tissue that can be pushed back through the hole in the abdominal wall. A small hernia may resolve itself as the calf grows, but a large one is serious, what may have happened is a loop of the intestine might have come through and strangulate, causing that segment to die and ultimately killing the calf. A large hernia should be examined by a vet – it may need to be surgically corrected.

Contracted tendons:
Occasionally a calf's toes cannot straighten out and he walks with feet knuckled under. Mild cases usually get better with treatment as the calf moves around and exercises the legs get stronger and the tendons stretch. But in serious cases the calf will need leg splits or surgery.

Birth defects caused by lupine:
If a cow eats certain kinds of lupine in early pregnancy, poisonous alkaloids may cause defects in the developing fetus. The calf may be born with crooked or twisted legs, twisted spin, or cleft palate. Some calves survive if the defects are not too severe, but other are so malformed that they cannot function.
 
TAGGING
If you have more than one or two cows, it is a good idea to ear tag the calves. Even if you know your cattle as individuals, it can be frustrating trying to explain which animals are which when another person is doing your chores, checking the cows for you, doctoring a calf, or helping you sort cattle in a corral. If cow and calves have numbers it makes everything a lot easier.

One of the best kinds of permanent identification for cows is the brisket tag which is anchored in the thick skin of the dewlap, that is the loose skin under the neck. It does not pull out as easily as an ear tag. But ear tags work well for baby calves. At weaning you can put in a more permanent brisket tag on a heifer calf you plan to keep.

There are many good ear tags, tagging tools that are accompanied with instruction for application. The best time to put in tags is soon after birth while handling the young calf for vaccinations, vitamin or selenium injections, or castrating or dehorning. When the cow and calf go out to pasture from the calving barn or pen, the calf has his mother's number on his ear tag and you know exactly who he is even when he is off by himself or with other calves of similar color and markings. 

CASTRATION
Castration and dehorning are easier and less stressful when calves are small. All bull calves should be castrated unless they are to be used for breeding. Steers put more energy into growing and gain weight and they are easier to manage and less nuisance in your herd.

If you are raising purebreds you may want to castrate calves after you have had a chance to see how they grow so that you are better able to make a final decision on which should be bulls and which should be steers. But if you are not considering a calf as a bull, castrate him as a baby. This is the least stressful and safest time to do it since the testicles on the young calf are small. Older calves take longer to heal and recover.

CASTRATION WITH ELASTRATOR RINGS
The easiest way to castrate with the least risk of infection or excessive bleeding is to use elastrator rings. These strong rubber rings are like tiny ring donuts. You can buy them from your vet with the tool needed to place them over the testicles. The elastrator tool has four small prongs upon which you place the rubber ring. It spreads when you squeeze the handles thereby stretching the ring.

With the calf on his side and someone holding his head and front leg so he cannot get up, kneel beside the calf as you work from behind him and lean over his flank so he does not kick you with his hind legs, and place the stretched ring over the testicles. First grasp the scrotum with one hand, and use the other to make sure both testicles are in the scrotum. If the calf is tense or kicking, they may pull up out of the scrotum. He must be relaxed.

It may take a moment or two to get both testicles into the scrotum. You may have to work them down with your fingers in a "milking" mode. Often both testicles are there especially if he lies quietly and does not struggle and you just have to make sure you get them both pulled down as far as you can before slipping the ring over them.

The rubber ring must be situated as high on the scrotum as possible so that the testicles are below it and not being squeezed by it. Feel to make sure both are still in the scrotal sac, below the ring before you release it. Once released off the stretching tool, the ring constricts and cuts off blood circulation to the scrotum. The calf feels discomfort for a little while, then no pain at all as the area becomes numb. Tissue below the constricting ring dies from lack of blood, the scrotal sac and its contents wither and dry up. Within a few weeks the dry sac falls off, leaving a small raw spot that soon heals. The disadvantage of elastrator bands is that in some regions the calves are at a higher risk of getting tetanus than if they were castrated with a knife.

SURGICAL CASTRATION
Surgical castration involves cutting a slit in the scrotal sac with a sharp knife or scalpel, or cutting the end off the sac, and pulling the testicles out and cutting them off. Surgical castration always carries some risk of bleeding, infection and maggot infestation, depending on the time of year.

DEHORNING
This should be done as early as possible when the calf is small. It is not as hard on him as when the horns have a large blood supply. 

Dehorning baby calves is easiest since horn buds are small. You can use a caustic paste that kills the buds. Apply it when the calf is a few hours or days old. This works best on calves younger than 10 days of age when the horn bud has not yet erupted through the skin. Paste does a good job if the area is clipped and the paste applied properly. Obtain dehorning paste from your vet. Follow the instructions and be careful not to get it on your hands. The paste form is applied with a wooden applicator, the stick from is rubbed onto the horn button. If you are using the stick form, moisten either the horn button or the end of the stick before applying it. To prevent severe burning, apply petroleum jelly around the base of the horn and above the calf's eye after clipping the horn area.

Many cows lick dehorning paste off their calves, so for best results separate cow and calf temporarily while the paste does it work. Protect the calf from wet weather that might make paste run down its face and burn his skin and possibly get into his eyes.

BATTERY DEHORNER
Baby calves can be humanely dehorned with a rechargeable battery operated, cordless dehorner before horn buds erupt through the skin. This is done preferably during the first week of life. The battery dehorner is easier on calves; they feel less pain and there is less damaged, burned tissue to heal. When dehorned with traditional methods, their heads may be sore for weeks while the burned tissues heal.

The battery dehorner by contrast becomes immediately very hot and cuts through the skin in a small ring around the horn bud. It kills the nerve cells as it cuts the blood vessels, destroying blood flow to horn growing tissues. This procedure is bloodless, the vessels are cauterized as they are cut. The calf feels pain for only a couple of seconds until the nerves are severed. The horn button dies, dries up and falls off.  

To immobilize the calf hold him in a special calf holder called a Kavlok.

ELECTRIC DEHORNER
If your calves were not dehorned soon after birth with paste or the battery dehorner, dehorn at 2 or 3 months. At that age horns can be scooped out with a special tool or seared with a hot iron to kill horn producing cells. In all event calves with horns should be dehorned before winter, but do not dehorn at the same time you wean as this adds stress to the calf.

Electric dehorners create a high, even heat. Use one of suitable size for the calves. A small dehorner may not be adequate for larger horns and will not kill all the horn cells, the result is that some calves will have deformed horn stubs, or horns. A large dehorner may be difficult to use on small horn buttons and burn more tissue than necessary, making its head sore for a longer period and take longer to heal.

Before using the dehorner make sure its head is held still. He needs to be adequately restrained. You can use a chute or head catcher for small calves, back the calf into a corner, hold his neck between your legs and pull the head tight against one leg to keep him from moving while being dehorned on one side.

When using any electric dehorner, make sure it heats fully and consistent. Apply the heat long enough to completely kill the horn. After the outer shell comes off, reapply heat to underlying tissues. Be sure the surface of the iron is cherry red i.e. very hot before touching it to the calf's head. The hot iron should be applied for a few seconds, long enough to burn a copper colored ring in the skin around the horn. Then turn the head to the other side and do the other horn. Between doing the other horn, give the dehorning iron time to get red hot again.

Dehorning with a hot iron is bloodless, but the burned area will be painful for several days. Minimize the extent of the burn by clipping the area first. Also, when using a dehorner never place it near hay, straw or another other flammable material! 

Dehorning later on:
Perhaps you purchased some calves that were not dehorned as babies, any calf with horns or horn stubs should be dehorned before going into winter. It is harder on the animal the longer you wait and the larger the horns grow since there is more blood supply to the area as horns get larger. But do not dehorn at weaning time.

If the horns are fairly large the arteries supplying them are also large, there can be a lot of bleeding. Some people use blood clotting medications to help coagulate the blood where as others use tweezers to grasp and "pull" the bleeding vessels to clamp and crush them. A torn or crushed vessel stops bleeding more readily than a clean cut one. The torn edges draw together better and clotting is swifter.

Another way to halt bleeding after the horns have been nipped off is to sear the area with a hot iron. This burns and melts the cut blood vessels, effectively sealing them. A dehorned animal with large horns always spurts blood for a few minutes unless the area is cauterized. Normal clotting action generally slows and stops the bleeding before the animal loses too much blood – unless there are unusual circumstances such as lack of clotting ability which can occur if the animal ate moldy sweet clover hay or silage, or plants that contain chemicals that interfere with clotting – or strenuous exertion and excitement following dehorning which keeps blood pressure elevated and bleeding prolonged. Dehorned animals should not be stressed before, during and afterward – do not run them around.

Dehorning Yearlings or Older Animals:
Domesticated animals that have been allowed to grow up with horns can be dangerous to you and other livestock. Horns are a natural defense against predators such as wolves. 

Under natural conditions i.e. on a ranch with wide open spaces a subordinate cow can get away from a dominant "boss cow" who takes a swipe at her with sharp horns, but if she is in a corral situation the bossy cow with horns may take advantage and attack her, and a cow with horns at calving time may do the same to you if she gets into a fight. 

If you ever purchase an animal with horns or have one in your own herd that did not get properly dehorned as a calf, it is wise to dehorn her. Even a short, deformed horn stub can be a dangerous weapon and can cause serious bruising when a cow rams it into other cattle.

If dehorning yearlings or mature cows, use a horn saw because the horns are too large for nippers. The animal must be restrained in a chute with the halter being well secured to the side so that animal cannot move its head while you are sawing. Pull the head around one way to do the first horn, then the other way for the other side.

On cattle with large horns there is more risk of bleeding to death, leave about 1/8th of an inch on the bottom side of each horn to give a small lip for anchoring  temporary tourniquet to halt the bleeding.

An animal with large horns may squirt blood for quite a while after the horns have been sawn off. But you can stop the bleeding quickly and completely by tying a baling twin around the poll i.e. top of the head – tight under the horn lips after you have sawn off the horns. The large arteries are not far under the surface of the skin at that spot, and by putting pressure on them with the twine you can stop the bleeding.

Large horns heal faster if the tissue is NOT burned, so it is better to use a tourniquet than to cauterize the sawn surface with a hot iron. It can be hard to adequately cauterize large horns anyway since there are big cavities in the horn base. 

To get the tourniquet tight, tie a string around the poll, anchored under each horn, then pull it even tighter by tying another string over the top of the head pulling up on the first string front and back. This pulls it very tight under the horn lip on each side and shuts off the arteries. Leave twines on for a day or two then put the animal in the cute and cut off the twines. By then the area has started to heal and there is no more bleeding.

Apply the tourniquet right after you saw the horns off. It does not work to tie it beforehand, you disrupt the twines and loosen them during the sawing. Leaving a small amount of horn – enough to secure a twin tourniquet – may mean the horn will grow a little, perhaps becoming an inch long stub during the life of the animal. But it ensures there will be no serious bleeding or risk of losing the animal. It also exposes less horn tissues which are vulnerable to infection.

Dealing with infection of dehorning:
Infection of a horn can be hard to clear up. Sometimes the outer surface heals over and the infection breaks out against weeks or even months later. A healed horn may start draining pus or thick jelly like material. The first sign of trouble may be the animal going off feed becoming dull, or acting as though the head hurts. These cases need antibiotics and medication such as dexamethasone or DMSO to reduce pain, swelling and inflammation.

If you plan to dehorn large animals, weanlings or older, do it before or after the fly season which is usually late autumn or early spring. Otherwise you will have trouble with maggots in the horn cavities until they heal and fill in. If flies lay their eggs in the holes you will need to use a fly killer repellent to get rid of them

Avoid dehorning during or just prior to severely cold weather. 

If dehorning weanlings that were missed as calves, do it soon after weaning and well before winter sets in. An animal can catch cold in exposed horn tissues. If you have never dehorned large calves or older animals and are unsure about trying it, call your vet and let him do it.


CHAPTER 10 – THE IMPORTANTANCE OF WHEN YOU WEAN

Weaning calves:
It is best to wean your calves before the pastures decline in quality and cows drop in milk production. Calves gain more rapidly after weaning if you can put them on better feed than if left on the cows in a pasture situation where feed is no longer green. Cows especially benefit from weaning early so they can regain body condition before the cold weather sets in. Autumn is a good time to gain weight back while grass is still available and cold stress is not yet a problem.

Weaning decreases nutritional demands on the cow. Cows still milking on mature grass pastures with declining forage quality tend to lose weight in late summer and early autumn. Lactation requires 50% more feed, 70% more energy, and twice as much protein as pregnancy alone. Cows that continue nursing calves until December may lose 150 pounds before the next calving. If you leave calves on this late, you must supplement the cows to keep them from losing weight – but this is expensive and counterproductive.

When cows are pulled down to calve in thinner condition, next year's calf may suffer – there may be more sick or weak calves and greater chance of loss, and a higher rate of open cows (non-pregnant) the next year because they did not breed back.

How early to wean is a decision best made yearly depending on the age of calves, quantity and quality of pasture available, and weather conditions. Weaning early can be a way to save feed costs, preserve the best pastures for the weaned calves, and keep cows in more productive body condition.

STRESS OF WEANING
Weaning can be an ordeal if stress lowers the calf's immune defenses and makes him more susceptible to disease. Weaning is a traumatic experience for a calf, and also for the mother if it is her first calf. Weaning stress can be minimized, however.

Weaning creates both physical and emotional stresses, and the emotion trauma is hard on calves than the sudden deprivation of milk. Cattle are herd animals, happiest with other cattle. Calves feel most content and secure with adults. Separating a group of calves from their mothers and putting them in a pen by themselves creates anxiety and stress. A big calf that is healthy and eating well does not need its mother's milk anymore, but still is emotionally dependent on her and very insecure without her.

How stress creates illness:
A combination of bad weather, i.e. stormy, wet, hot, cold, windy, anxiety, or dusty corrals can lead to respiratory problems and illness. Calves may be so worried and frantic that they mill about the corral, stirring up dust that is laden with germs and irritates respiratory passages opening the way for pathogenic invaders. The calves may run up and down the fence wearing themselves out and taking very little time to eat.

Although the immune system protects the calf from common diseases under ordinary circumstances, stress can hinder its proper workings and lower the animal's natural resistance. The body's defense against stress is to produce a hormone called cortisol. Over a short term this hormone is beneficial because it changes the body's metabolism to help it function better under stress. It creates a temporary increase in blood glucose, for instance, which can be used as energy. If a calf is not eating this can help.

However, over a long period of stress, the process is detrimental. The continuing production of cortisol interferes with the immune system, hinder production of antibodies and white blood cells which are the body's defense against pathogenic microorganism. The effects of cortisol are similar to that of other steroids, such as dexamethasone.

The lungs are especially vulnerable to the effects of lowered resistance due to stress. Harmful organisms are always present in the air the calf breathes. If airways are irritated by dust particles from a dusty corral, the calf is doubly at risk if his resistance is lowered by stress.

Natural weaning
When a calf is raised on a range pasture and not brought home to wean the calf, the cow kicks off her last year's calf before her new calf is born. The yearling tags along with the family group staying with them for protection and emotional security. This is not the best way to raise calves you get more production by weaning calves earlier and feeding them better and giving the cow some rest from lactation between calving again. Next time she calves her milk will be better, and her body condition better if she isn't still feeding her present calf. However, there is a lesson to be learned from the natural way which is that it avoids the emotional trauma of separation from the herd.

The calf that gets weaned naturally is never stressed as much as a calf weaned in a pen. If a calf is separated from his mother on the range, of if she dies etc., he still has the security of the herd and does very little bawling or wandering. Weaning does not stress him that much, he does not got off his feed or spend energy in frantic searching since he expects his mother to come back to him. He will return to where he last saw her, but then resigns himself to her absence because he still has the herd for company. Calves only become frantic if taken somewhere unfamiliar i.e. a weaning pen, they are desperate to get back to where they think their mothers are.

Minimizing Weaning Stresses:
Choose good weather for weaning, minimize the time a calf has to spend in a corral. A grassy pasture is always better than a dusty or muddy corral. It also helps to have a few calves in the group already weaned. They are a calming influence on the others and help them learn to eat hay if they have to be in a pen. If you sell a few old cows early in the season, that is when they are fat and before markets drops in the autumn, their claves are past weaning and can be good babysitters for the others. If you wean calves in a corral, totally separated from their mothers – which is the most stressful situation – it is wise to vaccinate calves for weaning related diseases 2 or 3 weeks ahead of weaning while they are still with their mothers so that they can building up immunity before the stress of weaning.

If possible, weaning should be done in a well fenced pasture rather than a corral. Calves will still do some pacing and bawling but are happy for the green grass. There is no dust and so there is less of a problem with respiratory disease. If the grass isn’t very good, the pasture can be supplement with a little alfalfa hay.


One way to reduce stress is to wean the calves a few at a time, leaving weaned ones in their familiar pasture with the rest of the herd for security. If mothers of weaned ones are taken away where calves cannot see or hear them, they calves usually do not try to go through fences to find them. If the last place the calf saw his mother before separation was in the field with the herd, he usually won’t look any farther than that and soon accepts her being gone. The last group to be weaned no longer has adults for security but has already weaned calves for company.

You can also leave a few babysitter cows – non-pregnant ones that you plan to sell later or ones that need to stay on good pasture with the weaned calves. Even yearling heifers work as babysitters.

Corral Weaning:
The traditional way of weaning calves is to put them in a pen by themselves and this is hardest on them. They have been on pasture and are now suddenly expected to eat hay. They are frantically missing their mothers and their insecurity and desperation are contagious. They pace the fence, bawling and running, desperately interested in any adult cattle they see or hear.  Any frantic activity by one sets off a chain reaction and they will all start to bawl and pace again, rarely taking time to rest or eat. 

The following practices can reduce stress in corral weaning:

First: sprinkle the corral with water if it is dry and dusty, and use a relatively small pen to cut down on frantic pacing and running.

Second: If the water supply is a tank rather than a ditch or stream, let it run over. This helps calves find the water if they are not accustomed to drinking from a tank. It also keeps water cleaner. A calf with a runny nose leave mucus in the water when he drinks. The mucus floats on the water and can infect other calves. But if water continuously runs over - ditch it out of the pen so it does not make a mud hole – the mucus etc. is flushed away.

Third: Feed small amounts of hay several times a day instead of just one or two large feedings. Calves will eat more and waste less. They do not like feed they have slobbered on or walked on. Because of their walking and pacing they waste a lot of hay if you feed on the ground, it is better to use feed bunks or feed racks.

Fourth: Turn the feed in the bunks before feedings so there is always fresh hay on top. Your actions will stimulate their curiosity, and they will come to see what you are doing, and then they will eat. Since they spend a lot of time pacing around and little time eating, the more often you can get them to come to eat for a while, the better.

Fifth: Feed your best hay, fine and palatable, not coarse and stemmy. Calves are fussy eaters and at this time of stress are not eating enough anyway, you want every mouthful to be nutritious and you want them interested in hay instead of refusing it.

Sixth: If they have to be in the pen for a long time, start them on grain.

Seventh: Keep a gentle cow in the pen to give them comfort and security and to help them start eating hay. They will follow her example. If you will be putting calves out on good pasture after weaning, you will not need to feed grain. After pasture gets less lush, add alfalfa hay or grain then.

Handling Cows during Weaning:
If you take cows to another pasture after separating them from the calves they try to go back. Make sure the fences are in good repair. Be prepared for some mothers, especially first calvers, they will try to crawl through. Older cows are usually not as desperate. They bawl for a couple of days or stand at the fence, but most of them are not frantic, they soon go back to grazing. Pregnant cows often seem to know it was about time to wean anyway, since there will be another baby soon. Open cows, that is a non-pregnant cow, is by contrast often more reluctant to give up this year's calf and make more diligent attempts to get back to it.

First time calvers are the most difficult group of cows to handle at weaning time. Most are very determined to get back to their babies. Some push through very good fences in their desperate efforts. It is wise to keep first time calvers in a very good corral for several days after taking their calves away until they resign themselves emotionally to the separation which may take longer than physical dry-up of their milk. These young cows are loyally determined to take care of that first baby forever. Unless you put them in an escape proof place – they will crawl through.

Pasture Weaning:
Weaning calves on pasture is much less stressful than corral weaning. Calves can be vaccinated at the time of actual weaning since their immune systems are not hindered. If the pasture is good, calves keep gaining weight. You can leave some babysitter cows with them, but if the pasture is really good they seem to manage on their own.

Pasture weaning achieves continued weight gain on relatively cheap feed. By contrast most feedlot weaning programs experience weight loss or unchanged weight for the first 2 or 3 weeks while using expensive feeds such as hay and grain.

If you have to wean early – as when trying to conserve scarce green feed during a drought, or to send some cows to market early – pasture weaning is the best method.

In a drought situation you can use what little good pasture you have for the calves and kick the cows back out on to rougher pastures or more marginal feeds to supplement with hay. Save your best pasture for the weaned calves, then finish grazing it later with cows.

Make sure the fence will hold calves. Net wire, or a fence reinforced with an electric wire to keep calves from trying to crawl through can prevent escapes. If calves are already used to an electric fence, a three strand electric fence will generally hold them.

A method that works well is to put the calves in a small grassy lot for the first day or two after being separated from their mothers. They will do a bit of baling and more trampling than grazing, but then when you turn them out on better feed they will go right to grazing and be pretty well over the weaning.

Fenceline Weaning:
An easy way to wean calves in a small herd is to put cows and calves in separate but adjacent pastures for a few days. The calves still have the security of their mothers, they can be next to them through the fence but cannot nurse. Neither cows nor calves get as worried with this arrangement and there is less bawling or fence pacing. They do not get concerned if the other goes off to graze, lying by the fence or grazing close by it until the missing party returns. This is more natural, the cow and calf can still interact i.e. smelling each other through the fence and having continuing companionship.

By the third or fourth day the cow no longer worries about her calf not nursing, she is drying up and does not have the painful pressure in her udder. She isn’t concerned about her calf, and he realizes he does not need her so much. The cows can be moved to another pasture if you wish, weaning has been accomplished without stress or illness. Just be sure the fence separating the adjacent pastures is adequate to keep cows or calves getting through.

VACCINATING CALVES
At the age of weaning calves need boosters to bolster the immunity that may have started with calfhood vaccinations but is not yet strong enough to see them through their first winter. Even if you vaccinated earlier for blackleg, malignant edema, and other clostridial diseases, calves need another shot, it is preferable to do this before weaning if they will be in a corral situation with added stress. Or you can vaccinate them several weeks afterward, that is after they are over the stress of weaning and can build good immunity.

Vaccinate against respiratory diseases:
Weaned calves will need vaccinations against IBR, BVD, P13 AS WELL AS OTHER VIRAL RESPIRATORY DISEASES. Ask your vet which vaccinations he recommends for your area and situation. When giving modified live-virus vaccines, follow label directions for use and administration. If vaccinating the calves before weaning do not use a live virus product or you risk having calves spread a mild form of the disease to their mothers. Even though the cow may not become ill the virus may damage the fetus she is carrying and she may abort. Use a killed-virus product instead.

Using modified live virus vaccines:
If vaccinating calves at the time of weaning or after weaning, use modified live virus vaccines if caves will not be in direct contact with the cows. This gives a much longer lasting protection. But, do not use it if cows and calves have access to one another as in fence-line weaning where they will sniff noses for a few days after separation. Wait until they are totally separate with no chance of the calf giving the virus to his mother. If all your cows were vaccinated earlier in the year against BVD, IBR and P13 after calving, or before breeding and they have strong immunity, you will not have the risk of calves spreading the virus to their pregnant mothers. If may be safe to use live virus vaccine on calves before weaning.

Vaccinating in special circumstances:
	What vaccines you give calves and when, will depend on how you plan to wean them. If they will be in a stressful situation i.e. corral weaning, and at risk from disease due to stress, they should be vaccinated at weaning time or shortly afterward with no adverse affects. Select your vaccine accordingly – live or killed virus – depending on whether the calves are still on heir mothers and whether the mothers were already vaccinated that year.

Vaccinating against Bangs disease (Brucellosis)
In some places in the world all heifer calves have to be vaccinated for Bang's disease by the time they are weaned or soon after – that is at the age of 10 months. This vaccination can be given by your vet. This bacteria causes undulant fever in humans. Check with your vet to see if your area has a mandatory Bang's vaccination program or if heifers must be vaccinated in order to be sold or shipped. If your heifer should be vaccinated against Bang's schedule an appointment with the vet to vaccinate all your heifer calves. You may wish to have your cows tested for pregnancy at the same time.


CHAPTER 11 - REBREEDING
One of the most important aspects of managing a herd of cow is getting them rebred on schedule after they calve.

Any cow that does not rebreed quickly reduces the profitability of your cattle raising. 

This chapter covers getting the cows rebred quickly after the calving season and the ability of bulls i.e. their selection, and breeding ability, and the use of artificial insemination.

Nutrition needed for a cow after calving:
The nutrition a cow receives during the first 60 days after caving will determine whether she starts cycling and rebreeds. Cows need adequate food to produce milk for their calves and still maintain proper body condition so they can breed again on schedule – that is within 90 days after calving.

The 60 to 90 days after calving are most crucial for adequate nutrition because the needs of the cow are greatest during that time, nutrition requires protein, phosphorous, calcium vitamin A and TDN (total digestible nutrients), which covert to energy. Poor nutrition adversely affects milk production, the ability to come into heat, and the chance of becoming pregnant when bred. Once she has been successfully bred she can coast a little. The developing fetus makes very little demand for her during the first two thirds of pregnancy. She can be a little thin in early pregnancy as long as she has proper nutrition to milk well.

Cows that calve in early spring may be on new green grass at breeding time, this grass does not have much nutrient value. Some young grasses are mostly water, by weight and volume. It can be hard to get cows bred without supplemental feed such as good hay or some hay and or supplement.

After calving, a cow's energy requirements increase by 17 to 50% depending on its milk production. Inadequate feed at this time can lower calf weaning weight by 20 to 50 pounds if the cow cannot produce her potential for milk, and it can reduce conception rates by as much as 25% and some thin cows will not be come pregnant.

Evaluation of body condition can help you adjust the feed. Cows in good condition at calving and at the beginning of the breeding season are more likely to become pregnant – more are able to start cycling at the beginning of the season and conceive earlier. Being thin is most detrimental if a cow calves late, because she does not have as much chance to recover and rebreed.

Cows in good flesh can rebred 30 to 40 days after calving, whereas lack of cycling can keep a thin cow from rebreeding for up to 100 days. How much a cow needs during this time depends on her milking ability and feed efficiency. Good crossbred cows are often more efficient than straight bred cows and may milk better and rebreed earlier on the same type of feed. If a cow milks exceedingly well, she needs more food to do it.

If you have been selecting cows for increased size, growth rate, and milking ability, remember these factors will add to the cows' nutritional requirements. A 5 pound increase in daily milk for the average beef cow above the production of the rest of the herd increases her TDN requirement by 13 to 15%. If you can provide that kind of feed increase when she needs it with adequate pasture i.e. green pasture, not dry pastures short on protein, vitamin A and nutrients – or if you give supplemental feed on marginal pastures she will perform well, raise a big calf, and breed back. If she is not given sufficient this cow will milk less than her potential and may not cycle on time or become pregnant. Those of you who raise big, heavy milking cattle must have adequate feed for them to perform, otherwise the profit from a high producing cow that is not pregnant will be less than the profit from a smaller, less productive cow that can hold her body condition on less feed and poorer feeds and breed back every year, even though she has smaller calves than the high producing cow.

Match your cows to your feeds, breeding the kind of cattle that will perform well on your pastures. If you grow a lot of green pasture in a mild climate, you can raise higher producing cattle than those who must make do with desert rangeland. There is no perfect type of cow for all conditions.

Keep the first and second calvers separate from the main herd after calving if being fed hay so they can be fed differently with more pampering. This ensures they can milk well, keep growing, and breed back. Old thin cows should also be pampered so they can yield better milk and not be so thin after weaning their calves. If cattle must be on hay awhile after calving, make sure those with highest needs get their share. Otherwise give them alfalfa hay or protein supplement that the main herd can do without.

COW FERTILITY
Some cows are more fertile than others. Other cows are below average and breed late or not at all despite adequate feed. Always select for high fertility when keeping heifers or deciding which cows to cull. Even if a cow has raised a good calf if she breeds later each year she is not a good cow to keep. Do not keep daughters from her as there is the possibility that they are infertile like their mother.

One way to increase fertility is to shorten the breeding season to 45 days or less. The longer the breeding season, the harder to weed out cows that have a fertility problem.

Have a short season then take the bull out. If you leave him with the cows all summer and autumn, you will be calving all next summer if some are slow breeders.

You do not want some calves born so late that they must go through winter nursing their mothers.

If you leave the bull in for 45 days and cull every cow or heifer that fails to be pregnant – with the exception of two year olds that didn’t rebreed due to extra demands on their growing body while raising a large calf – you soon weed out the infertile ones and have a herd of very productive cows.

USE OF BULLS
You need a good bull unless you will be using artificial insemination (AI). Even then, most people use a "clean-up" bull afterwards to make sure all cows become pregnant because AI does not work 100% of the time. Cows should be bred to a good bull that displays the qualities desired in its calves.

LEASING OR BORROWING A BULL
If you have only a few cows or heifers you may not want to invest in a bull. If this is the case you can lease or borrow one for a few weeks while the cows are being bred, then send him back again. The bull should be kept separate from other cattle when not needed for breeding, you don't want him breeding any cows out of season or any heifers too young to be bred. 

Selecting the right bull:
It is important to find out as much as you can about the bull. You want one that is compatible with your cows and suits your purpose. Do not use one that sires huge calves to breed young heifers, nor a large, heavy bull that might injure them during breeding even if he is known to sire small calves. Select one of a breed or cross that will complement your cows and produce calves that are better than they are. Make sure the bull has a good disposition and is easy to handle and be sure he is free of venereal disease by choosing one that has been used only on virgin heifers.

USING YOUR OWN BULL
If you have more than a few cows, you will want to own your own bull. You can buy a calf in the autumn – to be a yearling his first breeding season next spring – or a mature bull if you need one sooner. Purebred breeders generally sell bulls as yearlings or two year olds. Many are sold at annual production sales, some are sold by private arrangement where you go to the farm and select the bull of your choice.

A mature bull is more expensive than a bull calf because the breeder has spent more time, feed and money on the animal. The advantage of buying a mature bull is that you can see and judge his strong points and weaknesses whereas a calf is still immature and growing and it may be hard to envision what he will look like as a breeding bull. But a good judge of cattle can evaluate the calf to know if he will become a well built bull.

An advantage in buying a calf is that you can usually have a look at his mother and consider her disposition and shape. Also the bull calf will not be as overfed, you can grow him out properly to stay sound and fertile longer. Too many bulls that are prepared for bull sales are overfed and fat which is detrimental to their fertility and structural soundness – they have more feet and leg problems.

SELECTING A BULL
Base your choice on visual evaluation, performance records, and pedigree if raising purebred cattle. Look at performance records of sire and dam, weaning and yearling weights, and any other data available. A breeding aged bull should be check by a vet to evaluate breeding soundness and fertility. No matter how good a bull's performance record for growth, he will not be any good unless he can breed and impregnate.

Reproductive Traits:
Reproductive ability of a bull is the most important factor to evaluate because fertility is heritable.

If he isn’t very fertile, his daughters may not be either.

If buying a virgin bull, you have no way to evaluate this important fact until you bring him home and put him with your cows. But most sellers guarantee their bulls as breeders, if a bull cannot breed cows, they will take him back and replace him with another one.

Visual Examination:
No matter what kind of records and performance data a bull has, some things can only be judged by looking at him. Records work best when used in conjunction with visual appraisal. The conformation, which is the general structure and shape of the animal, and structural soundness of the bull used to produce calves or replacement heifers is vitally important.

For best fertility, bulls should look masculine and cows should look feminine! A masculine bull will sire feminine daughters. A feminine cow will produce masculine sons. Part of the fertility problem in some herds is that females are selected for traits other than femininity such as fast growth and beefiness, and bulls are selected for high weaning and yearling weights rather than their masculinity and fertility.

Visual appraisal of a bull can also give clues to intelligence and disposition, factors that are important for his daughters – the future cows in your herd. You can often tell by observing a bull's reactions to things and how he caries himself whether he is a wild-eyed ridge runner or a docile, easygoing individual.
Points to look for in bull selection:
Structural soundness is important, especially conformation of feet and legs. Bad feet, pigeon toes which are toes turning inward instead of pointing straight ahead, long toes, straight hocks, sickle hocks which is, a condition in which here is too much angle in the hind legs and loose sheaths that is, a tube-shaped fold of skin into which the penis retracts, are some of the more common structural problems. Be critical in areas that will affect his athletic ability and breeding function, and in the conformational traits he may pass on to his offspring.

One: carefully inspect feet, toes heel, pasterns, knees, hocks, sheath, testicles, etc. and watch to see if he moves well. A well built bull should move freely with some flex in his knees and hocks. If he moves stiffly or clumsily, there is probably something wrong with his conformation.

Two: Each foot should strike the ground evenly; hind feet should follow in the tracks of the front, with no swinging inward or outward. Slight deviations can be overlooked, but significant variation from straight stride should be avoided because this is a sign of weakness or poor structure in his leg.

Three: check to see if the bull has proper angles in feet and legs. This is important because a bull must be athletic – to move well and service cows. If he is to straight in the shoulder, with steep pasterns – that is no slope to his ankles – and to straight in the hind legs – that is an angulation in hocks or stifles – he will have problems. This type of bull often has a short, choppy stride, caries his weight on his toes, and may have small feet. Such conformation may cause him to buckle over at the knee.

Four: The post-legged bull with too straight hind legs is more prone to injury than a bull with normal confirmation. Post legged cattle often stand tall and may look good, but this poor conformation may lead to stifle injury or hock problems.

Five: The opposite extreme – too much angle in the hind legs – this called sickle hocks. This is equally bad in a breeding bull, making him more susceptible to foot injuries. A bull with either extreme will have more trouble mounting and breeding cows than a bull with normal hind leg conformation.

Six: A bull's feet must hold up for athletic activity. The hoofs should be well formed with strong, deep heels. If one toe is wider or longer, there is uneven weight distribution due to conformational faults higher up the leg, resulting in uneven wear and abnormal hoof growth.

Seven: Look closely at the hind legs when evaluating a bull for breeding soundness. During mating most of his weight is on his hind legs, they must be well formed and strong. A bull with hind leg problems may not walk enough to find all the cows in heat or keep up the necessary activity to court, mount and breed successfully a large number of cows. As a bull with poor hind leg conformation gets older, larger and heavier, the problem interferes more with his breeding ability.

Eight: Look at the length of body. A long bull is better than a short backed bull. The more length, the more meat on the animal,- especially in the loin area. You want calves with good length and depth, with thickness through the shoulders, along the back, and over the top of the rump. You want good muscle cover and frame, not too narrow yet not too wide; a bull with wide shoulders is likely to sire calves that cause calving problems. A sway-backed bull is usually not as strong and athletic and may not hold up as well over time.

Nine: A bull should have good bone, not too fine and fragile. The term "bone" means bones and tendons – total circumference of the legs. If a bull is fine boned he may have insufficient support for his body which can lead to injury and breakdowns. When selling calves you will find that buyers discriminate against fine boned calves. However, excessively heavy bone makes a bull more clumsy and less athletic. You are trying to produce animals with meat, not bone, the bone is a waste is the carcass.

Checking Body Condition:
A thin bull needs some reserve at the start of the breeding season since he may be so intent on courting and breeding cows that he does not take enough time to eat.

At the other extreme, a fat bull does not have athletic ability and fitness to breed a lot of cows. Young bulls that have just completed weight gain performance testing are too fat. This interferes with success as breeders; fat in the testicles gives too much insulation for proper temperature control necessary for sperm production and viability. High energy diets fed to young bulls to prepare them for sale are very detrimental to reproductive ability. Bulls fed too much grain usually have lower sperm production and fewer total sperm than bulls fed more normal, high roughage diets.  

The over fat young bull also has too much weight and stress on immature bones. He may develop feet and leg problems. Pick a bull that has never been overfed, a muscular bull that isn't fat.

If you have to buy an overfed bull at a sale, buy him well ahead of your breeding season so you can give him at lest 2 months reduction on a good roughage diet before he is used for breeding this way he can lose the fat and become more physically fit.

Checking scrotal shape and circumference:
The shape and size of a scrotum can indicate a bull's fertility. The exact size can be obtained by measuring, however you can usually tell by looking whether a bull is adequate in size.

Shape is important too, since a bull must be able to raise and lower testicles for proper temperature control. Testicles should hang down well away from the body especially in warm weather. There should be an obvious neck at the top of the scrotum with testicles hanging down large and pear shaped.

A bull with a straight-sided scrotum or a V shaped scrotum may not be as fertile as one with the normal pear shaped scrotum. Be careful not to select a bull with odd shaped testicle i.e. one smaller than the other. Any abnormality should be noted, it is good advice to consult a vet before using or buying a bull.

Scabby, thickened skin on the back bottom third of the scrotum may indicate frostbite and this can cause temporary or even permanent infertility.

If you have questions regarding the adequacy of scrotal size in a bull you are considering buying get its circumference measured. There is a significant correlation between scrotal circumference and sperm cell volume and the percentage of normal sperm cells. There is also a strong correlation between scrotal circumference in a bull and the earliness of fertility in puberty of his daughters. Bulls measured at a year of age should have a scrotal circumference of at least 32 centimeters, preferably 36. Confine the bull in a chute before attempting to measure. Now that it is in the chute, from behind, grasp the neck of the scrotum and gently force the testes down into it, putting the measuring tape snugly around the largest circumference.

For best fertility in a bull and his offspring, select bulls with above average scrotal size. Average isn't good enough. For years breeders selected bulls mainly for performance traits rather than reproduction. This has led to fertility and reproductive problems. Selecting for increased growth rate in bulls – larger weaning and yearling weights – results in bulls that reach maturity later, they keep growing too long. The leaner, later maturing bull tends to have smaller scrotal circumference. The largest, fastest growing bulls do not necessarily have the most sex drive or best fertility.

Bulls with small testes not only have lower sperm production but may also have incomplete development of testicular degeneration. Bulls with a scrotal circumference 29 centimeters or less may produce no sperm at all. Bulls with smaller than average testicles may be fertile for a year or two then become less fertile or even completely sterile. There is more abnormal sperm in the semen of bulls with small testicles. All types of testicular underdevelopment are inheritable. Selection of bulls with large scrotal circumference for their age can avoid this problem. Beef bulls usually average 34 to 36 cm in scrotal circumference when mature enough to start breeding as yearlings. Bulls with a scrotal circumference of less than 32 centimeters should never be used for breeding.

Examination by your vet:
A semen check and examination of the reproductive trait by a vet can help determine if the bull will be a satisfactory breeder. The vet will check for adhesions due to injury or bruising in sheath or penis, or abnormalities that might interfere with breeding. The vet will examine the scrotum, testes, and the epididymis which is the cordlike structure along the back of the testis that provides storage for sperm. A semen check shows if the bull has adequate numbers of live sperm and a high or low percentage of abnormal sperm. Too many sperm with abnormalities may mean he is sexually immature or that there are degenerative changes in the testes. Abnormal sperm numbers usually decrease as a young bull matures or his testes becomes larger. A bull that does not show normal sperm by 18 months of age is a very poor risk as a breeder.

Extremely hot weather can make a bull temporarily infertile, this too should be taken into consideration if a bull is checked lat in the summer.

Selecting a bull to sire replacement heifers:
If you are not keeping daughters from a particular bull, just producing calves for sale your main interest is in the growth qualities and muscling of the calves. The bull's ability to pass on milking ability and good udder shape will not be important. But if you plan to keep daughters from the bull, choose a bull that will make a good contribution to your future cow herd. Since the bull provides half the genetic potential of your herd, make sure he is outstanding in all the qualities you want so you can raise cows that are better than their mothers. You want fertile, long-lived cows that raise a good calf while still breeding back on time to calve again year after year.

Be critical of the bull's conformation, you want his daughters to be structurally sound with good feet and legs. You do not want him swaybacked with a high tail. A downward sloped rump is preferable to a tipped up pelvis with high tailset. If he sires daughters with tipped-up pelvic area, they will have more calving problems than cows with level or sloped down rump.

Observing the Bull's Mother:
Look at the bull's mother when choosing a bull to sire your cows. Important factors to consider are her milking ability, udder shape and teat size, general conformation, fertility, hardiness, disposition, longevity, size and nutritional needs. The bull's daughters will be a lot like his mother. A cow might be outstanding in several traits yet have little value in your herd if she is deficient in even one of the important traits, which are not measured in EPD's (expected progeny difference).

This is one advantage to raising a bull yourself from your own best cow. You know her history and can evaluate the important aspects of her genetics such as does she get big teats at calving time? Did she reach puberty early and become pregnant as a heifer? Has she had a calf ever year and no fertility problem. Does she calve easily without assistance? Does she have a manageable disposition? Does she raise a big calf on her milk alone, on pasture, without supplements. But if you do keep a bull calf from one of your cows, make sure to keep track of family lines to avoid inbreeding. You do not want to breed him to his own mother, sisters, aunts, daughters or any other close relative.

If buying a bull, find a breeder raising the kind of cattle that will work for you in your situation. Visit his place to look at his cattle in natural condition at pasture. A good breeder should not hesitate to show you the mother of the bull you are interested in. She will have more influence on your replacement heifers than any other single individual in his pedigree.

Considering Disposition and Temperament:
These two factors are inherited. Select a calm, easy going bull whose sire and dam were intelligent and easy to handle. You want a bull that only sires fast growing calves but steers that are calm and heifers with good dispositions. How you handle cattle makes a difference, but it helps if they have intelligence and an easygoing nature to begin with. Some breeds are not noted for good dispositions, but you can still find individuals that are more mellow and manageable, or more trainable if you look for those traits.

Crossbred Bulls:
Many farms now have crossbred and composites (uniform cross developed from a variety of breeds). Most people try to breed cattle that are efficient, productive and long-lived – producing well without extra cost to get desired production. A good crossbred bull is often the answer for fastest improvement in a cow herd.

By using a crossbred bull on crossbred cows you can get a 3 or 4 way cross in just one generation. You can select breeds for a desired blend of characteristics, getting the advantages of several breeds at once and increased production that might have taken many generations of selective breed to obtain in cattle of just one breed. And you can add traits that might be difficult or impossible to find in some breeds.

Another advantage of crossbred bulls is hybrid vigor – early maturity, more sex drive, and breeding ability, grater longevity, and higher fertility. Moreover, by using crossbred bulls you can keep the "mix" the way you want if keeping replacement heifers. You do not loose the hybrid vigor after the first generation; by breeding crossbred to crossbred you keep about 75% of the hybrid vigor.

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR OF COWS AND BULLS
Cows must be cycling when you put bulls with them. There is no point in having bulls with them immediately after calving because cows must resume their estrous cycle first. This will take at least 40 to 60 days after calving. Cows usually start coming into heat about 50 days after calving, depending on breed and nutrition. Some cycle as early as 30 days after calving, other may not cycle until 2 or 3 months later. 

The presence of a bull in a group of cows or heifers may start them cycling sooner or returning to heat earlier after calving.

Cows usually stand for mounting by the bull only when in strong heat and ready to be bred, though they often let other cows or heifers mount them before they are actually ready for the bull. As they go out of heat they may continue to let females mount for a short while after they are no longer receptive to the bull.

During heat the cow urinates frequently, the bull samples the odor and tastes to determine if she is in heat. The in-heat cow releases pheromones a chemical substance released to give signals to other animals of the same species in bodily fluids especially urine and sweat glands in the flank. The bull makes tentative attempts to mount as she is coming in to heat, but the cow won't stand. He keeps checking by resting his chin on her back or rump; he only mounts her fully when she holds back rigid. Bulls can often identify a cow in preheat up to 2 days before she comes into heat and may keep close track of her until she does. Cows in heat are more active than normal, fighting other cows, bawling and traveling around, bulls are attracted to this.

How to know if a cow got bred:
When a bull mounts a cow to breed and finds his proper position, he gives a strong thrust as he ejaculates and often a leap with hind legs leaving the ground. If he actually breeds her, the cow will stand humped up with tail raised for a while after he dismounts. If the bull does not trust i.e. just mounting and dismounting with giving his leap and the cow does not hold her tail out afterward, then the bull did not ejaculate and the cow was not bred.

Getting the cows bred:
Inexperienced young bulls should be carefully observed to make sure they are doing their job. Bulls raised in all male groups may be hesitant when first introduced to females. Some young bulls are clumsy and blundering, or overeager, or continue to think more about fighting other bulls than looking for cows in heat. Keep close track after the bulls are turned in to make sure young bulls are capable breeders and that older bulls do not quit. Some bulls slow down or quit when they get too heavy, or they stop breeding if they become injured or experience discomfort when breeding.

There can be vast differences in breeding ability of bulls. Yearlings and two year olds may not be as dependable as older bulls when confronted with several cows in heat at one. They may spend all their time with one cow. Experienced bulls are more likely to distribute their services efficiently. There is also difference in sex drive. Detecting these differences when first evaluating a bull can be hard, almost any bull gets excited and breeds a cow when first put in with females, but you do not know if he will keep up his efforts throughout the season.

How may cows per bull?
If you leave a bull with cows 45 – 60 days or longer, you can get by with one bull for every 30 – 50 cows if he is a good breeder. In a season this long, a cow has more than one or two chances to get pregnant and there is room for error. If a bull does not get the job done on her first cycle due to fatigue, injury, social dominance problems, or too many cows in heat at once, there is another chance later.

If you have a short breeding season i.e. 45 days or less, you may want more bulls to make sure no cow get missed. It helps to have several small breeding pastures with only 1 to 3 bulls in each group. If cows are all together in one large group, some might be missed while bulls fight over the others. And with this much activity there is more chance for injury to bulls.

Pay close attention to what is happening. If there are two bulls in a group, they may fight and keep each other from breeding. One or three is often better. With three, the extra bull can breed the cow while the other two are fighting.

BREEDING ABILITY OF BULLS
A bull's ability to service a cow depends on many things, including desire, psychological factors such as social dominance i.e. whether a bull is "boss" or intimidated by older or more aggressive bulls, and physical factors. He may start the season with enthusiasm but then quit due to fatigue or injury, psychological intimidation, or some other problem that dampens his desire for the job.

Psychological Factors:
If a bull is socially dominant he will intimidate other bulls and sire most of the calves, or keep other bulls from breeding, even if he himself doesn't get the job done. 

Older bulls often dominate younger bulls, and if the bulls are horned they may dominate those without.

Some bulls have more sex drive than others and do most of the breeding. Other bulls do more fighting than breeding. Just because a bull is aggressive it does not mean he will be a good breeder. Sometimes a quiet, mild disposition bull sticks to business and breeds the cows while the aggressive bulls spend their time fighting.

You need to be aware of what is going on in every breeding pasture. One bull may take his females into a corner and keep them boxed-in trying to keep them away from other bulls or away from the fence where another bull lives in the adjacent pasture. He may spend more time jealously herding and guarding his cows than breeding them.

Every bull is different. Cattle are very social animals, pecking order and individual attitudes have a large bearing on what happens in the breeding herd. Two bulls may get along fine or one might constantly try to keep the other one from breeding.

In a group with more than one bull psychological factors may alter the picture when you add a new bull or take one out. Bulls that got along reasonably well may not be compatible after the newcomer is introduced. Subordinate bulls may spend all their energy fighting for top position after a dominant bull is removed. Often there are fewer problems in a breeding group if the same bulls can be with those cows for the whole breeding season.

Social dominance should never be ignored when figuring out breeding groups. It can affect their offspring rate in any pasture with more than one bull. If a bull is dominant he will sire most of the calves himself or try to keep other bulls from breeding.

Desire:
Sex drive and fertility as evaluated in a breeding soundness exam by a vet are not necessarily related. A bull with high quality semen may have a poor sex drive, and vice versa. The biggest, fast gaining bulls are often slower to reach puberty and sexual maturity and may be poorer breeders than the early maturing bulls that do not grow so big. The largest bulls reach puberty later, and so will their female offspring. Early maturing bulls that reach full growth quicker and never get quite so large usually have greater scrotal circumference and sire daughters that mature early and breed quickly.

Physical Factors:
An injury may keep a bull from servicing cows, but you will not know unless you see him try. Some problems are not obvious until a bull is attempting and failing to breed. You must watch and observe. If problems show up you have a chance to correct them before the breeding season is over and before they interfere with the conception schedule in your herd.

Problems that can affect a bull's desire to breed or hinder mating ability include illness, being overweight or underweight poor conformation, genetic or congenital abnormalities, scrotal frostbite, or injury. Any condition that causes discomfort may discourage a bull, such as footrot, poor hind leg conformation that puts strain on joints, lameness of any kind, back problems, or joint problems in feet and legs. Overweight strait hock, that is hind legs that are straight and not enough angle in hocks, bulls are prone to stifle, that is the large joint high on the hind leg by the flank, lameness. Foot problems such as overgrown hoofs, bruised sole, and laminitis, that is the inflammation of the hoofs caused by overeating grain can also interfere with breeding ability.

Physical Abnormalities:
A common cause of serving disability is abnormality of penis or foreskin. Some abnormalities are congenital or inherited, some are due to injury. Polled bulls i.e. those who are born with out inherited horns are injured more often than horned bulls due to looser sheath and foreskin, which are more prone to tearing. Some injuries are obvious such as excessive swelling or the penis does not retract. Other problems will not be noticed unless you see the bull attempt to breed and fail.

An example of penile deviation is that the penis does not extend straight but droops down or has an S curve, spiral, or what is called a rainbow deviation meaning bent in a semicircle, making it difficult for the bull to breed. Many of these abnormalities are due to injury. Some can be detected by a vet's examination with an electro ejaculator which is used to collect a semen sample from the bull. But a corkscrew or rainbow deviation will not be noticed during fertility testing since full extension of the penis does not occur. These problems can only be seen during a bull's attempt to breed.

Another problem includes a bruised and swollen penis, hair rings that restrict circulation, matted hair and manure in front of the sheath that injure the penis, nerve damage, prolapse of the fold of skin over the penis, or warts on the penis. Most can be diagnosed and treated if damage is not too great. But the affected bull is unable to breed for a while and should be removed from the cow herd until he recovers.

Scrotal frostbite:
Severely cold weather can make a bull temporary infertile or even permanently sterile from damage to testicles and deterioration of semen. Older bulls with low hanging scrotums are more frequently and more severely affected than younger bulls during a winter storm; mature bulls cannot pull testicles up close enough to the body for warmth.

Bitter cold, or a blizzard with a severe wind chill factor, may freeze testicles so much that some bulls refuse to service cows for up to 6 months afterward. Some damaged bulls eventually recover, but others do not, testicle swelling results in permanent impairment.

Bulls can recover from frostbite if there are no adhesions in scrotal tissues and the sperm tract is not damaged. The lower part of the scrotum suffers first – that is they are unprotected when a bull draws his testicles up against his body for warmth. If tissue has been frozen there will be scaring with a scabby area on the bottom third of the back of the scrotum where it was exposed to the wind. This damage prevents raising and lowering of the testicles properly, it affects fertility since sperm production and viability depend on proper temperature. After a severe winter, have your bull checked by the vet.

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
If you breed cows with artificial insemination (AI) you will have to devote time to observe them and make sure they are inseminated at the proper time. This is more labor intensive than using a bull, but it can be cheaper and is a way to breed cows to a wider selection of good bulls.

For successful AI you need individual identification such as a brisket, tags, ear tags, or freeze brands. Cow identification should be readily visible from a distance for easy reading of numbers during heat detection. You will also want to keep good records. Know the sire and dam of each cow so you can choose a bull that complements her genetics. Have a record for each cow showing when she comes into heat, the date she is bred, the bull she is bred to and whether she become pregnant or returns to heat.

Detecting the cows' heat:
Be familiar with cattle behavior and signs of heat. You must be able to determine the proper time for each cow to be bred. You will need to understand the subtle behavioral changes a cow goes through before, during and after estrus. Put cows into small pastures next to your chute at least two weeks before the start of the breeding season where you can watch them closely every day. Record all observable dates of heat before the beginning of the breeding season. This helps you know which females are already cycling and gives you some idea of when to expect their next heat. You can be watching closely for a cow to return to heat at a certain time and be less apt to miss her.

For successful heat detection, spend at least 30 to 60 minutes twice a day once in the early morning and then again in late evening to observe the cows. More than half of the cows in heat will be detected in the morning, only about 28% at noon, and less than half in the evening. Some cows are in heat only part of a day, so you must see them twice to discover them all. Checking morning and evening, you have a chance to detect about 95% of all cows in heat.

If you do not have time to watch cows, there are heat detection devices that tell when a cow is being ridden by other cows. One is a mount detector, which is a white plastic device put on the tailhead or sacrum which is between the hip bone and tail head, with adhesive. It stays white until triggered by pressure from a mounting cow, which turns it bright red. This does not work in pastures where low hanging trees or heavy brush might cause a false reading or tear the detector off.

Another device is the chinball marker, worn beneath the chin of a teaser bull or cow. It works like a ballpoint pen, leaving an ink or paint mark on the back of the cow that has been mounted. As the teaser animal slides off the cow, marking fluid is released and leaves a visible mark on her hip. A variety of animals can be used as teaser, including cull bulls that have been altered by a vet to prevent ability to breed, vasectomized bulls, or cull cows that have been treated with the male hormone testosterone.

Using an AI technician:
If you have only a few cows to inseminate you will probably want the local AI technician to do it. Order the semen ahead of time and he will store it frozen in liquid nitrogen. Then call him whenever you have a cow in heat ready to be bred. If you wish, you can learn to do this yourself. Diligent cleanliness during all insemination procedures is essential for success, and the semen should be properly prepared.

The inseminator wears long sleeved disposable obstetrical gloves and inserts the long pipette into the cow's vagina, guiding it with his other hand in the rectum to be able to feel, that is through the rectal wall, exactly where it is going. The inseminating tube should be passed just through the cervix which has opened during the cow's heat period, and the semen deposited just where the cervix ends and the uterus begins.

Proper time of breeding:
A cow ovulates toward the end of her heat period, so it isn't necessary to breed her when she first comes into heat. But you want her bred before she is out of heat, or the cervix will be closing and it will be impossible to inseminate her. A standard rule used by most inseminators is the morning-evening system. The cows you find in heat in the morning should be inseminated at evening, that is roughly 12 hours later, and cows found in heat in the evening should be inseminated early the following morning. When you observe a cow in heat, call the technician to schedule her for morning or evenings rounds unless you are doing it yourself.

Facilities for artificial insemination:
You need a good corral and chute. A simple cute 8 to 12 feet long, 26 to 30inches wide, inside measurement and 5 feet high is adequate. Boards should be spaced so a bar can be put behind the cow above the hocks to keep her from backing out. You need a crowding pen to hold cows while they wait to go in the chute. NEVER USE THE SAME CHUTE FOR AI AND VACCINATING OR DOCTORING – YOU DO NOT WANT YOUR COWS TO ASSOCIATE THE AI CHUTE WITH PAIN.

Using a "clean-up" bull:
Breeding by AI alone does not result in every cow becoming pregnant. Good conception rate is 60 to 70%. Most insemination programs are used for 25 to 28 days, long enough to give every cow a chance to cycle and be bred once by AI, and sometimes twice if she returns to heat. A clean-up bull is then put with the cows to breed any that did not become pregnant, so any cow not conceiving during the AI program will still have a chance to be pregnant.

If you want to know which calves are sired by which method, wait a short while before turning in the "clean-up" bull to determine by date of birth which calves were the ones sired by AI. Or use a "clean-up" bull of a different breed than the AI sires to make it easier to identify AI sired calves.

The number of clean up bulls needed spends on the size of the herd and success rate of the inseminator. With 70% conception rate, you need one bull per 100 cows. After a 28 day AI period with some cows conceiving to a second AI service in that time.

PREGNANCY TESTING
The final proof of success in any breeding program be it AI or natural service, is to determine whether cows are pregnant. Many folk pregnancy test in the autumn or after the breeding season has been over long enough for the vet to palpate the uterus and determine whether there is a fetus. With the cow restrained in a chute the vet reaches into the rectum with gloved arm to feel the uterus and is arteries. An experienced person can determine whether the cow is pregnant and how far along she is.

Pregnancy checking enables you to know which cows failed to conceive. Usually you can tell, a cow that does not become pregnant will return to heat and you will see her cycling later. But there can always be surprises. Occasionally a cow will fail to show heat yet not be pregnant. A cow may have cystic ovary or some other condition in which she does not cycle. Or a young thin cow may not come into heat until after she weans her calf. Once in a while you will even find a cow that shows signs of heat while pregnant.

The best way to find out for sure whether you have non-pregnant cows after the breeding season is over is to have them checked. This gives you the option of selling an older non-pregnant cow after she has weaned her calf, before you go to the added expense and effort of feeding her through the winter only to discover she is not going to calve when the next calving season comes around.


INDEX

BUYING CATTLE
Udders, 2
	Bulls, 2.
Calves, 2
Heifers, 2, 12
Steers, 3:
Yearling, 3
Cull Cows,3,
Tricks of the trade, 3
Pregnant heifers or cows, 3
Bringing them home, 3
Behavior, 4,
Why won't they eat, 5
Grazing, 5
Curiosity, calves, 7
Brucellosis vaccinated cows, 18

BREEDING OF HEIFERS
also see REBREEDING HEIFERS & COWS
Conception rate, 33
Puberty, age of, 33
Breeding, when to, 34, 94 
Estrous cycle, 34, 93
Heat, signs of, 33- 39, 90, 93, -98
Fertilization and pregnancy, 35
Gestation, period of, 35
Bull, choosing to breed heifer, 35
Artificial insemination, (AI) 36,.96 
Semen, collection, 36
Nutrition, pregnant yearlings, 36 
Nutrition, hay, 36
Nutrition, in cold weather, 36
Moldy feed, hazard of, 37
Overfeeding, 32
How to know if a cow/heifer got bred, 93
Pregnancy testing, 98
Udder hairy, clipping 31
Vitamin A, 16

BREEDING PROBLEMS & PROBLEMS IN PREGNANCY
Also see CALVING
Abortion and its causes, 36-37
Abortion percentage, 37
Dexamethasone, avoidance of, 37
Leptospirosis, 16, 37 
IBR infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, 16, 18, 37-38
 Red Nose, 16, 18, 37
 BVD – bovine virus, 16, 18-19, 38
 Listerosis, 38
Trichomoniasis, 38
Venereal diseases, 38
 Plants that cause abortion 38
Pregnancy, problems that can occur, 38
Fetal death after the first trimester, 39
Hydrops amnii, 39
Prolapse of the vagina, 39
Iodine, use of, 22

BUTCHERING
Butchering, general, 4
Feed in the weeks before butchering, 6
Grain, Acidosis, 25
Yearling, butchering, 16

CALVING
Preparation, 13, 40
How to handle cows at calving time, 43,
Suggested supplies to have on hand during calving, 43-44
Shelter during and after calving, 68
Dry season calving, 68
Summer calving, 40-41, 65
Hot weather calving, 41, 65
Wet weather calving, 41, 65
Early spring calving, 41, 65
Cold weather calving, 41, 65
Signs of approaching time to calve, 44,
Signs of labor, 44
Birth of calf, 44-45, 54
Second day after birth, 68
Minimizing calving problems, 45
Assisting calving process, 45-46
Assisting with chains, 46, 50, 51
Assisting with calf-puller, 46, 52
How to use a calf-puller, 46, 50
Situations that may require special assistance, 47, 50
Hymen, persistent, 47-48
Malpresentations (calf incorrectly positioned), 48
Progress, importance of manually checking calf's, 48-49
Backward position, 49
Uterine inertia, 49,
Backward calf, delivery, 50
Breech position, calf in, 50
Delivering a breech calf, 51
Calf's head turned backwards, 51
Calf's leg/s turned back, 51
Calf sideways or upside down, 51
Calf with all four feet forward, 51
Recommendations in repositioning a calf, 52
Hiplock, 52
Placenta, coming ahead of the calf, 52
Torsion of the Uterus, 53, 54
Caesarean section, 54
Twins,39, 54
Complications, 54
Uterus, prolapse, 54-55
Placenta, retained, 38, 55
Paralysis, 55
How to get a cow to stand up, 55-56
Artificial respiration, 54, 56
Heart beat, 56
How often does a calf need to nurse, 62
Tagging, 28-29,30, 78-79, 94,96

CALF, CARE OF NEWBORN
First breath, 56-57
Umbilical cord, 49, 50, 52, 56, 57, 76, 78
Umbilical cord, handling, 57
Navel stump, disinfecting, 57
Smells, strange smells in barn, 57
Helping calf to nurse, 57-58
Heart beat, 56
Colostrum, its importance, 58
Colostrum, quality, 58-59
Colostrum, emergency supply, 59-60
Colostrum, for a calf that cannot nurse, 61
Antibodies, factors affecting absorption, 58
Teat plugs, 59
Holding the cow still, 60
Body language, 60
Nervous or timid cow, 60
Restraining an uncooperative cow, 60-61
Baling twine hobbles, 61
Heifers that refuse to mother their calves, 61,
Grafting an orphaned calf, 7, 62-63
Warming a chilled calf, 63
Moving calves from barn within 24 hours, 68
Getting a newborn in from the pasture, 63
Overprotective mothers, 63,64
Separation of pregnant cows from calved out cows, 67
Grouping calves according to age, 68
Small groups, 68


CALF HEALTH
Blackleg, vaccination, 19
Calf immunity, role of antibodies, 64
Heart beat, 56
Immunity, passive, 64-65
Immunity, active, 65
Enterotoxemia, 19,65
Selenium deficiency, 65
Illness, detecting in young calves, 65-66
Illness, signs of illness, 66
Dullness, 66
Gut pain, 66, 67
Gut block, 67
Teeth, grinding, 66,73
Feed, going off, 66-67
Cold, increase susceptibility to, 67
Sick calves, 67
Scours (diarrhea), how to manage, 67
Scours, minimize stress 67-68
Scours and gut infections, treating, 68
Scours, advantage of calves in small groups, 68
Minimize animal concentration, stress, contamination, 67-68
Scours, viral vs. bacterial scours, 68-69
Scours, viral response to antibiotics, 69
Antibiotics, 69
Scours, importance of electrolytes, 69-70
Scours, electrolyte recipe, 70
Endotox shock, 70-71
Castor or mineral oil, how to give, 71
Bloat, cause, 8
Bloat, how to relieve, 71-72
Bloat, using stomach tube, 72-73
Bloat, gut damage, 73
Coccidiosis in calves, 73
Cryptosporidiosis, 73
Pneumonia, 73-74
Pneumonia, symptoms, 15,74
Temperature, taking calf's, 67, 74
Pneumonia, treatment, 74-75
Diphtheria, 75
Diphtheria, symptoms, 75
Diphtheria, treatment, 75-76
Sulfa, in dehydration, 75
Lung congestion, 75
Navel Infections and joint illness, 76
Navel infections and joint illness, symptoms, 76
Navel infections and joint illness, treatment, 76
Doctoring, how to catch calves, 76-77
Flanking a calf, 77
Intravenously or subcutaneously fluids, administration of, 77
Windpipe, when administering fluids, 77
Esophageal feeder, use of, 77
Oral medications, how to administer, 77-78
Bones, broken, 78
Defects, birth, 78
Umbilical hernia, 78
Contracted tendons, 78 
Lupine, cause of birth defects, 78
Dehorning, 79-80
Dehorner, battery, 80
Dehorner, electric, 80
Dehorning, later, 80-81
Dehorning, yearlings or older animals, 81-82
Dehorning, infection, 82
Kavlok, use of, 80
Blood clotting, 81

CALVES, ORPHANED
Feeding, 7
Grafting an orphaned calf, 62

CALVES, VACCINATING
Blackleg, vaccination, 19
BVD, vaccination, 19
Respiratory diseases, 86
Modified live virus vaccines, 86
Vaccinating in special circumstances, 86
Vaccinating against Bangs disease (Brucellosis)18, 86-87
Vaccinating, weaning, 16

CATTLE:
Where to raise, 7 
Pastures, size and type, 7
Dehorning, 82
Grain, Acidosis, 24

DISEASES
Brucellosis – Bangs disease, 18, 86-87
Bovine respiratory disease, 18
Pneumonia, 18 
Diphtheria, 18
IBR, Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, 18
Parainfluenza-3 PI3, 18
Bovine Viral Disease (BVD), 18-19
Prevention of BVD, 19
Clostridial, 19
Blackleg, 19
Malignant Edema, 19
Enterotoxemia, 19
Rabies, 19-20
Coccidiosis, 20
Footrot, 21-23
Footrot, treatment, 23
Lump Jaw, 22
Boney Lump Jaw, 22-23
Mastitis, 23
Mastitis, treatment, 23
Hardware disease, 23
Bladder stones, urinary calculi, 24
Bloat, 24
Bloat, prevention, 24
Bloat, treatment, 24
Acidosis and Laminitis, 11,25
Acidosis and Laminitis, prevention, 25
Acidosis and Laminitis, treatment, 25
Grass Tetany, 26-27
Grass Tetany, prevention, 26
Grass Tetany, treatment, 27
Emphysema, 27
Emphysema, treatment, 27
Emphysema, prevention, 27
Nitrate Poisoning, 27
Nitrate Poisoning, prevention, 27
Parasites, internal, 27
Deworming, 28,32
Liver Flukes, 28
Cattle Grubs, 28
Cattle Grub treatment, 28
Heel flies, 28
External Parasites, 28
Horse flies, 28
Deer flies, 28
Face flies, 28
Black flies, 28
Gnats, 28
Mosquitoes, 28
Horn Fly Resistance, 29
Lice, 29
Lice, treatment, 29
Lice, prevention, 29
Lyme disease, 30
Ticks, 30
Ringworm, 30
Warts, 30
Scabies mites, 30
Mange, 30 
Mange, treatment, 30
Eye problems, scraping and bruising, 13, 20-21
Pinkeye, 20
Cancer of the eye, 20-21
Burdock slivers and other foreign material, 21
Eye injuries, 2
Strangulated teat from hair udder, 31

FEED
Feeding, "boss cows", 4
Pastures, 7-9
Hay %, 8
Grass vs Alfalfa, 8
Grazing, 9
Forage/roughage, 9 
Nutrition, 9 
Energy, 9
Fats,10 
Proteins, 10
Protein analysis, 10 
Vitamins, 10 
Minerals, 11 
Concentrates, 11
Salt, 11 
Grain supplements, precautions when feeding, 11 
Time of day to supplement, 11 
Feed, going off feed, 66
Udders, effect on, 12
Moldy feed, 37

FEEDING WEANED HEIFERS
Nutrition, 12
Grain, when to feed, 32 
Hay versus Grain, 32
Growth, feeding for Growth, 32
Feed ration, heifers, 33

FENCING, CHUTES, HOUSING, STALLS, BARNS
Fencing, 12
Chute design, for Artificial insemination, 13
Stress, in chute, 13
Sorting cattle, 13
 Stalls ,42,63
Stall maintenance, 42,
Calf houses, 42
Simple portable housing, how to build, 42
Windbreaks, 41, 67 

HEALTH OBSERVATION
Warning signs, 13,
Abnormal signs, 15 
Eating habits, 14
Defecation and urination, 14
Abnormal posture, 15 
General attitude and behavior, 15 
Respiration, 15
Pulse Rate, 15
Temperature, 15, 67, 74
Heart beat, 56

INJECTIONS 
See Vaccinations/Injections and Calf Vaccinations

NUTRITION
Nutritional needs, 12
Nutritional needs for heifers, 12
Nutrition, lactating cows during breeding season,10, 12
Nutrition, protein, 10
Nutrition, calves on pasture,12
Nutrition, calves at weaning, 12 

MEDICAL SUPPLIES, 31

MINERALS
Minerals, amount of, 11

POISONING
Toxic plants, to Cattle, 9
Plant poisoning, symptoms, 25
Photosensitization, 26
Photosensitization, treatment, 26
Nitrate Poisoning, 27
Nitrate Poisoning, prevention, 27

REBREEDING COWS AND HEIFERS
 	Moldy feed, 37
Nutrition for cow before calving, 12
Nutrition for cow after calving, 12, 87-88
Conception, rate of, 34
Fertility, cow, 88
Heat, detecting when a cow is on, 34, 96- 97
Mount detector, 97
Chinball detector, 97
Artificial inseminator technician, 97
Getting cows bred, 94
Bulls, how many cows to a, 94
Bulls, use of, 88
Bulls, leasing or borrowing, 88
Bulls, selection, 88-91
Bulls, using your own, 88
Bulls, reproductive traits, 89
Bulls, visual examination, 89
Bulls, body condition, 91
Bulls, infertility caused by footrot, 22
Bulls, infertility caused by frostbite, 91,96
Bulls, infertility caused by hot weather, 92
Bulls infertility caused by cold weather, 92
Bulls, visual examination, 89
Bulls, conformation, 89
Bulls, scrotal shape and circumference, importance of, 91-92
Bulls, scrotal frostbite, 91, 96
Bulls, examination by vet, 92
Bulls, selected to sire replacement heifers, 92
Bulls, importance of mother, 92-93
Bulls, crossbred, 93
Bulls, disposition and temperament, 93
Bulls and cows, reproductive behavior, 93
Bulls, ability, psychological factors, 94-95
Bulls, desire, 95
Bulls, physical factors, 95
Bulls, physical abnormalities, 95-96
Bulls, penis abnormalities, 95-96
Bulls, a "clean-up", 97-98
Breeding time, 97
Artificial insemination, 36, 96
Semen, collection, 36
AI technician, using, 97
AI facilities required, 97
How to know if a cow got bred, 93
Pregnancy testing, 98

SALT
Salt, use of, 11

SNAKE BITES, 31

UNDERSTANDING YOUR CATTLE
Behavior and treatment, 4-5

VACCINATIONS/INJECTIONS
See Diseases, and Calf Vaccinations
Vaccinations, 15-16
Storage and handling, 16
Giving injections, 16
Giving I M injection, 17.
Giving SQ injection, 17
Vaccinations, reactions to, 17-18

VITAMINS
Vitamins, amount of, 10-11

WEANING
Nutrition, 12
Grain, 12
When to wean, importance of, 82
Stress, in weaning, 12, 82-83
Stress and illness, 83
Stress, minimizing, 83-84
Weaning, natural way, 83-84
Weaning, corral, 84-85
Weaning, cows during, 85
Weaning, pasture, 12, 85
Weaning, fence line, 85-86

 
YEARLINGS
Summer care of yearlings,5 
Grain fed vs. grass fed, 5
Water one kilo = 2.2 pounds, 6 
Dehorning, 81

ZAKAT, obligatory charity payment 106 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES CONVERSION CHART

TO CONVERT     INTO       MULTIPLY BY         TO CONVERT     INTO        MULTIPLY BY
Centimeters            inches            0.3937                     Kilograms               grams               1,000
Centimeters            feet                0.0328                      Kilograms              ounces            35.274
Centimeters            meters               0.01                      Kilograms              pounds            2.2046
Centimeters            millimeters            10                      Kilometers             feet                    3,281
Feet                        inches               12.00                     Kilometers             meters               1,000
Feet                        meters              .3048                     Kilometers             miles                    .621
Feet                        miles           .0001894                     Kilometers             yards                 1,093
Feet                        yards                .3333                      Liters                     cups                  4.226
Gallons                   pints                     8.0                      Liters                     pints                  2.113
Gallons                   liters                 3.785                      Liters                     gallons              0.264
Gallons                   quarts                  4.0                      Liters                     milliliters            1,000
Grams                    pounds               .002                     Meters                    centimeters          100
Grams                    kilograms            .001                     Meters                   feet                    3.281
Inches                    centimeters      2.540                      Meters                   inches                39.27
Inches                    feet                   .0833                     Meters                    kilometers           .001
Inches                    meters              .0254                     Meters                    miles         0.0006214
Inches                    yards                .0278                     Meters                    millimeters        1,000




TO CONVERT     INTO       MULTIPLY BY         TO CONVERT     INTO        MULTIPLY BY
Meters                   yards                1.093                      Miles                      feet                   5,280
Miles                      yards                1,760                      Miles                      kilometers         1,609
Ounces                  grams               28.35                      Ounces                  pounds            0.0625
Ounces                  kilograms         0.028                       Pounds                  grams             453.59
Pounds                  ounces               16.0                      Pounds                   kilograms           .454
Quarts                   liters                    .946                      Quarts                    gallons                .25
Yards                    inches                36.00                      Yards                     feet                    3.00
Yards                    meters                  .914                      Yards                     miles          .0005682


100.9 degrees Fahrenheit = 38.3 degrees Celsius
103.0 degrees Fahrenheit = 39.4 degrees Celsius


THE IMPORTANT NECESSITY FOR THE PAYMENT OF THE OBLIGATORY CHARITY

Prophet Muhammad, praise and peace be upon him, tells us:

“Whosoever has gold or silver and does not pay the obligatory charity which is due on it must know that on the Day of Judgement his gold and silver will be melted into slabs which will then be heated in the Fire of Hell then his side, forehead and back will be branded with them. When the slabs become cool they will be re-heated again and the branding will continue throughout a day the length of which will be equal to fifty thousand years until the people will have been judged, then he will be shown his way either to Paradise or to the Fire.

A Companion asked, ‘O Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, what about camels?’ He answered, ‘In the same way, the owner of camels who does not pay what is due in respect of them and what is due includes their milk on the day they are taken to water, will be thrown on his face in a wide level plain on the Day of Judgement to be trampled upon by the camels. These camels will be strong and fat, not one of them, even the calf of a camel will be missing. They will trample him under their feet and tear him apart with their teeth. When the last of them has passed over him the first of them will begin the process over again throughout a day the length of which will be equal to fifty thousand years until all men have been judged and he will be shown his way to either Paradise or to the Fire.’

Then he was asked, ‘O Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, what about cows and goats?’ He answered, ‘The same will apply to one who owns cows and goats and does not pay his respective obligatory charity on them. On the Day of Judgement he will be thrown on his face in a wide level plain with none of the animals missing and none will be without horns. They will gore him with their horns and will trample him under their hooves and when one side has finished the other side will begin, throughout a day, the length of which will be equal to fifty thousand years until all men have been judged and he will be shown his way to either Paradise or to the Fire.’

Then he was asked, ‘O Messenger of  Allah, praise and peace be upon him, what about horses?’ He answered, ‘Horses will be divided into three groups: those that are a burden for their owner, those that are a shield for him and those that make their owner worthy of reward. As for those who are a burden for their owner, they are the ones who are bred for show or for pride or as a cause of injury to Muslims. They will be a cause of punishment for their owner. The ones that are a shield for their owners are those that were bred by him for the Cause of Allah and he does not forget that which is due to Allah in respect of their backs and their necks. They are his shield. These horses make their owner worthy of reward and are the ones which are raised in meadows and gardens for use in the Cause of Allah by Muslims. Whatever they eat from meadows and gardens is recorded as good deeds of their owner, so much so that even their droppings and urine count as an equal number of good deeds for him. Every rope that is used (when they are being broken in), their jumping and every mound from which they jump and every hoof mark they make counts as an equal number of good deeds for him. When their owner leads them to a stream and they drink from it - whether their owner intended them to do so or not - every mouthful they drink counts as a good deed for him.’

The Companions asked, ‘O Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, what about donkeys?’ He answered, ‘No specific orders have been sent down to me with regard to donkeys but this verse is comprehensive: 'Whosoever has done an atom's weight of good shall see it, and whosoever has done an atom's weight of evil shall see it also.'" 99:7-8 Koran

Reported in Bukhari and Muslim with a  chain up to Abu Hurairah.