BISMILLAH IR RAHMAN IR RAHEEM
 

SO YOU WANT TO RAISE SHEEP!
 A HANDBOOK ON HOW TO
 

www.Allah.com
This document has been compiled to assist Muslim sheep raisers in the fellowship of the Prophets Muhammad and Moses, peace be upon them, with a Zakah Chart (the obligatory charity) which is due at the appropriate time. If you do not pay the Zakah, be warned that Sayidina Abu Bakr will fight you in this life and in your tomb as he fought those who refused to pay obligatory charity during his caliphate.


“When the Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, passed away and Abu Bakr became the Caliph some Arabs reverted to disbelief.

Omar asked him, ‘How can you fight them after the Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, said, 'I have been ordered to fight people until they bear witness that there is no god except Allah. Then whosoever bears witness to this, his life and property will be secure from me except when his case is that of a right and his accountability is to Allah?’

Abu Bakr told him, ‘Indeed I will fight those who make a distinction between prayer and the obligatory charity. This charity is obligatory in respect of wealth. Allah is my witness that if they withhold from me even the nose-rope of a camel that they paid to the Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, I shall fight against them for their withholding.’

Afterwards Omar said, ‘Then I understood that Allah had made the matter of fighting clear to Abu Bakr and I realized he was right.’"
Ref. 1233 Bukhari and Muslim with a chain up to Abu Hurairah who related this.



























THE STORY OF THE WOLF AND THE SHEPHERD
Copyrighted 2006   www. Allah.com and Muhammad.com
All rights reserved

Adapted for children and the young at heart 
from an authentic hadith transmitted by Abu Hurayrah,
 a close Companion of Prophet Muhammad
praise and peace be upon him
by
Khadijah Stephens Darwish

Ahban was a shepherd and one day as he sat peacefully looking after his sheep he didn't notice there was a wolf hiding nearby. The wolf waited patiently and then his luck changed when a sheep wandered away from the fold and he pounced upon it. The shepherd ran shouting at the wolf and caught up with it and managed to rescue the sheep from the wolf.

Much to the shepherd's surprise, the wolf did not run away. It just sat there, lifted its head and said, "Don't you fear Allah! You have stopped me from having the food Allah had sent me." Well, you can guess just how surprised the shepherd was – a wolf speaking to him but more importantly asking if he feared Allah! The shepherd exclaimed, "Fancy that, how very strange, a wolf that speaks!" The wolf replied, "Hum, what is even more surprising is that you are sitting here with your sheep and abandoning the Prophet, praise and peace be upon him. Do you know, Allah values him much more than any of the previous prophets? And, the Gates of the Garden of Paradise have been opened for him and its inhabitants look down at his Companions to see what they are doing. Do you realize he is just over the hill, go and join him." 

The shepherd was curious and wanted to go but said to the wolf, "How can I go when there is no one to guard my sheep?" The wolf replied, "Don't worry I will look, after your sheep for you until you return." So strange as it may seem, the shepherd left the wolf to guard his flock and went to see if what he had been told was true. 

The shepherd climbed the hill and as he looked down he saw a crowd of people just as the wolf had described and thought to himself, "What the wolf said must be true, I must hurry down and see what is going on." He ran quickly down the hill, and soon caught sight of the Prophet, praise and peace be upon him. He knew immediately that this was no ordinary man and listened intently and loved what he said. After the Prophet finished speaking, he went up to him and told about the wolf but the Prophet, praise and peace be upon him, was not surprised and said, "Return to your sheep you will find them all there." 

The shepherd had no hesitation in becoming a Muslim and was sad to leave the company of the Prophet, but promised himself that he would see and hear him as often as he could. As he climbed back over the hill, he kept thinking of all the wonderful things that had happened to him that day, and was thankful that Allah had sent a wolf to guide him to the Prophet, praise and peace be upon him.

When he reached his flock, he found them happily grazing just as he had left them and counted them. Not one single sheep was missing and so the shepherd thanked the wolf and gave him a piece of meat so he would not be hungry. The wolf was happy and ran off home to his family with some food for them.
















INTRODUCTION

Raising sheep can be a rewarding experience, Al Hamdulillah, and a lot can be learned from their observation that in turn enriches one's own personal life. By raising sheep you are following in the footsteps of Prophet Muhammad, praise and peace be upon him, and all his fellow brothers, the prophets who were all, at one time, shepherds.

The information contained in this brief booklet draws the attention of our brothers and sisters who want to raise sheep to the joy and some of the situations with which they may have to deal.

One must bear in mind when reading the chapters on disease that as in a human health care book numerous diseases are mentioned, but very few affect a person. The same can be said about sheep. The information contained in this booklet draws your attention to several problems that may or may not occur just in case you need to know supplementary information on how to deal with a specific illness. Raising sheep has many benefits, not just financial but also the satisfaction of seeing the hand of Allah in yet another aspect of His wondrous creation. Al Hamdulillah!

For the most part sheep are nice gentle animals. They provide an economical efficient source of food, warmth and fiber. There are many kinds of weeds and vegetation that other livestock will not touch that they will eat, and they are also relatively inexpensive to begin raising. Not only that, they reproduce quickly so just a minimal capital outlay can turn in to a good sized flock within a short period.

Sheep are really good choice of animal for those who are small property owners and don't have much space to raise cattle. Up to seven ewes and their lambs can be raised on the amount of land that just one cow and her calf! 

We advise you to read this booklet in its entirety to get a better understanding of how raise sheep, learn about their behavior and so on, rather than relying on the 'Quick Index Reference' at the end of the book alone.




















BISMILLAH IR RAHMAN IR RAHEEEM

The information in this booklet is believed to be true and complete to the best of our knowledge, however you may also experience situations etc. that are not covered in this booklet as it is presented as a general guide. All recommendations are made without guarantee on the part of the compiler and Allah.com or Muhammad.com. Both the compiler and publisher disclaim any liability in connection with the use of this information. 


CHAPTER 1
STARTING A FLOCK


BUYING SHEEP
ÈWe advise the prospective sheep raiser to read the entire book before purchasing their first flock as it will help to save money, rather than depending on these helpful guidelines which also serve as a reminder to those who are already in the business of raising sheep.

When purchasing sheep there are certain things to be taken into consideration such as:

1. Asking to see their health records
2. Looking for animals of similar breeding.
3. Healthy fleece is important
4. Shape and proportion of the animal (conformation), an important factor when lambing comes around
5. Alert and active ewes
6. Calm disposition
7. Bright-eyed sheep, with no eye discharge, squinting or eye damage
8. Teeth should be examined – this will also help you to determine its age
9. Manure should be solid and pelleted
10. Remember your breeding goals, do you want multiple births, is your interest in wool, meat, or do you want to raise a particular breed.
11. If you are buying sheep from a low-lying area get the checked for lungworm.
12. Make sure that you only buy sheep free from Ovine Progressive Pneumonia, which is a disease that takes 2 years to manifest itself and for which there is neither cure nor vaccination. If no tests have been done by the seller either ask him/her to have them tested before you buy and provide you with a certificate, if the seller is reluctant go elsewhere.
13. If your choice is a ram belonging to the black-faced breed, make sure he has been DNA tested and is free from the "s" gene  that causes "Spider 
Syndrome".
14. If you are buying or leasing a ram, make sure that it is tested for  Epididymitis, which causes damage to sperm producing tissues.
15. If you are a first time buyer, it is advisable to bring along a vet or someone successfully established in raising sheep. You can learn a lot from them and save yourself money.

If your plan is to raise a medium or large flock of sheep, try to purchase ewes with similar breeding because they will display the same traits such as temperament, breeding period, length of gestation and maturity. They will also produce lambs of similar quality that mature around the same time, and this is a plus when it comes to marketing.

Look at other sheep raisers in your area and see which breed or crossbreed thrives best in your climate. Also remember that buying from a local raiser shipping costs are reduced and the sheep are subject to less stress in transportation. Make inquiries about the practices of farmers you intend to buy from. Postpone buying from the first farmer you visit, rather check out two or three farms. Do not loose sight of your aim and unnecessarily be taken in with fancy looking farms, which of course can be efficient, but pricey. Very often full-time farmers with unpainted buildings have excellent, healthy animals to offer. All farms, no matter whether fancy or unpainted should be fairly clean. Of course there will always be organized piles of manure or equipment here and there. What you do not want to see is disguarded bottles of medicines, bags of chemicals, used needles, trash left lying around. If it has been raining or snowing the ground will be muddy, but it should not be excessively muddy, neither should there be a build-up of manure.

It is advisable to ask farmers about their breeding plans the following are some helpful questions to ask:

1. What is their goal?
2. Do they keep health and production records for you to see?
3. Are they prepared to provide a 5 day warranty? (Some farmers are reluctant to do so because they are not sure how you will care for them, however, most will stand by the health of the animals they sell you).
4. Are they prepared to deliver the sheep?
5. If you are buying locally is the delivery free?
6. Are they prepared to answer phone calls relating to the animals purchased from them when you get them home?

Should a farmer be reluctant or "off" by your questions, look somewhere else.

To avoid inbreeding you should replace your rams every now and them, once you have established their breeding record, then you can trade them with other local breeders.

The time when you buy sheep is an important factor. For example is your pasture ready to support them, or will you have the extra expense of supplemental feeding. Remember, sheep become upset when they are moved to new surroundings and this can lead to illness, so be prepared to have your facilities ready for them to ease matters for both them and yourself. It is better to move them when the weather is mild as this is less stressful. Like cows, sheep are subject to the ill effects of stress, ease their moving as much as you can to avoid problems that could, if neglected through inexperience, lead to loss.

It is advisable to purchase your first lot of sheep from a farmer who raises sheep, such a sale is called "private treaty sales". Should you be interested in buying purebred stock, then seek the advice of the breeding association – they can tell you which farms in your area suit your need.

When buying your first sheep, it is safer not to buy at a barn sale, or a livestock auction house because there are too many hazards for the inexperienced to detect when they are running in the ring. Amongst the disadvantages of buying in such facilities is that the animals have come in contact with sheep from several herds, and if there is a disease, a sheep purchased showing good healthy traits can develop the disease when you get it home. Many sheep up for sale in such facilities have been sent there because they have a health problem. It is a good idea, if there are such facilities in your area to go along for the educational experience and chat with the farmers, ask questions such as whose farm the sheep came from. 

AGE AND PRICE
The age of sheep is relative to its asking price. Young ewes that have already proved their lambing ability once or twice more often than not cost more, this is because they have proven themselves to be good breeders and have several years left for breeding. 

Baby lambs can provide a less expensive investment to start your herd. Farmers that have had orphaned lambs or lambs rejected by their mothers  will offer these lambs for sale because they do not have the time to bottle feed and give them the attention a ewe would automatically do which is time consuming. If you have time, then these are worth considering. These babies can be very rewarding and will be very close to you for their life, they will run to greet you whenever you enter the pasture or barn. Feeding such lambs will be covered in a chapter later on. 

Commercial sellers will often sell their ewes around the age of 7 or 8 years, these animals are called "cull animals". What this means is that the farmer has removed them from his flock because they aren't performing as well as they used too, this is often on account of health, age or reproductively. However, older sheep that cost less may fit your budget and can get your herd started. These older ewes can in fact be better for you than their previous owner, because they no longer have to compete with younger ewes for feed and by keeping the best of their lambs you can soon build up a nice young flock at a reasonable price.
When determining a fair price for a farmer's "cull" sheep, there are some factors to take into consideration:
1. The quality of its fleece.
2. How many lambs can she be expected to produce.
3. If she is fairly old, will you have to provide additional, higher quality feed on account of the deterioration of her teeth.
4. Does she have a history of producing twins or triplets?
5. Health record.

Teeth:
Sheep do not have teeth in their top jaw instead they have a hard palate.  Their bottom row of teeth consists of 8 incisors in the front and 24 molars, sometimes called "cheek teeth" at the rear of the mouth. Up to a certain age, the incisors can help you to determine the age of a sheep.

Up until a lamb is one year old, it has eight small incisor teeth. Each year thereafter, one pair of lamb teeth is replaced by two permanent teeth that are noticeably larger. At the age of 4 years, all the lamb teeth have been replaced by permanent teeth. Once this age has been reached it is no longer possible to accurately determine its age by looking at its teeth, however, for the trained eye an estimate based on the condition of the teeth can be assumed. What happens thereafter is that sheep begin to loose permanent teeth, and this is termed, "broken mouth".

As a sheep eats there is a grinding action that begins to wear away the teeth. The teeth of an older ewe look very much narrower with the wider part of the tooth being worn back toward the narrower center part of the tooth while the even narrower part below the gum line is being pushed up. This reduces the efficiency of the ewe's bite and when an older ewe grazes you will be able to hear sound as the grass slips between her teeth. 

Another contributory factor of teeth wear occurs when the pasture is overstocked. What happens is the grass is being over eaten and does not have a chance to replenish itself so that the remaining grass is consumed together with either sand or soil that acts like sandpaper on the teeth.

Teeth terminology:
Sheep are often referred to as having:
Solid mouth. A solid mouth is when a sheep has reached the age of about 4 years and has all its adult teeth.

Spreaders. This refers to older animals with apparent teeth wear. The narrow parts of the teeth that are under the gums are moving up into position.

Broken mouth. Missing teeth, and this is an indication that a sheep may only have one or two lambing seasons left.

Gummers. These are sheep that have lost all their front teeth and are a very poor buy, however, they can be a better buy than one with a "broken mouth" because as their gums harden they are able to still chomp away at grass. If an old ewe has just one or two teeth remaining and you want to keep her, then it is advisable to pull the remaining teeth with pliers.

SHAPE AND SIZE OF SHEEP

The shape and size of sheep is termed "Conformation". Sheep having a good conformation are more likely to be good producers. A ewe with good conformation will have a nice straight back, strong chest and neck, legs well placed under the body rather than having a sway back and belly, hock-kneed legs and weak chest and neck.

A ram needs closer inspection than a ewe. A ram will affect the character of your flock for better or for worse, what is apparent in him will also become apparent in the lambs he sires. 

A ram should of course have a good basic conformation. In addition he should also show a heavy, muscular neck and a deep, wide body. His genitals should be well developed, meaning its scrotal circumference should be at least 30 cms (12 inches) by the time he is a yearling, however, the scrotal circumference of smaller breeds is less. He must have good, strong healthy feet for breeding, if his feet are not strong then he is unable to mount successfully and there is a chance of injury. If he has a large head, this can cause a problem during lambing as the ewe will have difficult delivering a large headed baby. Because of the importance of a ram in your herd and its influence on future lambs, you should invest in the best one you can afford, however, you have the option of leasing one, but make sure it is healthy. 
  
Shape of head, teeth and mouth:
Not only should the teeth but the shape of the head should be taken into consideration. We have already discussed teeth, so remember a bite is also important without a good bite they are unable to shear grass. In a well conformed animal, the upper jaw is approximately the same length as the lower jaw, this means that the teeth of the lower jaw must line up with the pallet on top.

Body:
As we mentioned before, the back should be long and straight, as should its belly. Both the chest and pelvic area should be broad and firm. Feet should be well placed on the ground, and with legs widely set, fairly straight and forward facing. The rump should be rounded with a slight downward curve but it should not slope. Sheep being raised for meat should be large with strong muscles and trim features, whereas those being raised for wool should have a slightly more angular body with a dense, clean, bright fleece.

Udder:
The udder of a mature ewe should be soft and pliable, warm to touch but not hot. It should be symmetrical with two good teats widely spaced on each side. Teats should not show signs of chapping or hardness.

Overall Heath:
Having checked all the forgoing, do not overlook the health of the animal. If you are unsure, seek the advice of a vet and ask him to give the animal/s a close examination. Amongst the signs of good healthy sheep is that their eyes are bright, their ears and eyes alert to their environment, good appetites and drinking plenty of water. If the prospective animal is otherwise look at another, it is not a good buy. When an animal has sunken eyes it is a sign that it is dehydrated and this often accompanies illness. If the skin under the eyelid and gums are not a nice bright pink, but pale this is an indication of anemia which is often associated with internal parasites. 

Mucus membranes:
If the weather has been cold and windy a little clear fluid may discharge from the eyes or nose and is of little consequence, however, if weather conditions are other than this the animal should not have a discharge from either the eyes or nose. If the discharge is crusty, pussy or if there is excessive slobbering or frothing around the mouth do not entertain its purchase. There should never be a runny discharge emitting from the ears!

Respiration:
Check to see if its respiration is easy and steady, it should not be panting or breathing heavily. If they were chased, then let them rest for about 20 minutes before checking them. If they show signs of coughing or wheezing this is a warning that they have a real problem

Fleece:
A sheep's wool should be shiny and even. When its coat is clumpy, or has bald spots it could indicate that it has been subject to poor nutrition, illness or external parasites. Check the fleece with your hands around the neck and look for signs of sheep ticks or keds which is a brown, flat wingless fly. If manure is caked on the wool around the rump, backs of hind legs this is an indication that the animal is suffering from an illness known as "scours" in other words form of diarrhea, and is not a problem to be dealt with lightly.

Feet:
Examine the feet for signs of foot rot. If a sheep has foot rot then it also might have been affected by flies that lay their eggs and emerge as maggots and screwworms.  Also, check the hooves and see that they are not overgrown. If you are set on buying the animal, ask the owner to trim the hoof while you watch. Needless to say, the legs should move easily with neither sign of lameness nor stiffness. 

Skin:
Check to see if there are any rashes or wounds that have not healed. Turn the animal up into a sitting position, like the one for shearing, and inspect its belly, areas around the udder or scrotum. Any sheep with such disorders is not a good buy. If it has been wounded the signs of infection are hot, red areas around it and it may drain pus. Another problem occurs during the fly season when flies lay their eggs in the wool and thereafter maggots or screwworms emerge. However, if the wound appears to be healing normally, the animal is still open for consideration.  

Health Records:
Don't forget to ask to see the health records for the animal/animals you intend to purchase.

All of these subjects will be discussed in detail later on in the book.

Homecoming:
Well, now that you have bought your sheep, what should you do next? You made sure beforehand that your facilities are ready to cope, you have a small holding pen or a well fenced dry lot ready to welcome them home. This subject will be discussed later. Don't forget to ask the seller before you take them home what kind of feed he has been feeding them on, then gradually introduce them to whatever you intend to feed them – never change their feed abruptly, it can cause problems such as digestion, diarrhea, or bloat, and bear in mind sheep should be given their fill of dry hay before being turned out onto a pasture that is more lush that they have been used too.

If they need to be vaccinated a good time to do this is after you unload them. Deworming them is a must. After giving them the deworming medicine keep them in a dry lot or small pen for 24 hours, that gives them chance to pass any eggs, after that time move them onto a clean lot or pasture. Don't forget to treat them again in 14 to 21 days times to kill any worms that hatched from the eggs left after the first deworming .

If you already own some sheep, place the new arrivals in quarantine for 3 weeks, this period gives you time to watch them closely for illnesses that were not apparent during the examination and it also avoids infecting the existing sheep.

Inherited traits:
Genes are inherited. Some traits such as eye color are the result of genetics, but most traits are influenced by both genetics and environment. 

You find a particular breed having high probabilities of multiple births, but if the ewes are not fed with the right nutrition their conception rate won't be as high despite their genetic potential. Then, there are breeds known for producing really fine wool, but if the sheep has been sick, its fleece may be poor. 

There are many breeds of sheep that only breed during late autumn or early winter. This is because their estrus cycles are controlled by the hours of daylight. On the other hand there are some breeds that are able to breed out of season and various times of the year. These lambs – out of season lambs – can command good prices and is a trait looked for by those who are interested in accelerated lambing.

Multiple births:
Multiple births require greater attention during the lambing season than single births, however the profit can prove to be well worth the effort.

Undesirable traits:
Wool on a sheep's leg is not to be desired, because it makes shearing more time consuming, this also applies to wool on the face. Tests have shown that ewes with little or no wool on their face will raise more and heavier lambs than sheep that have wool on their face. Added to this is the fact that these sheep do not suffer from wool blindness, neither do they collect burrs that cause eye problems. However, if you happen to live in a cold climate and plan to leave your sheep out of doors in the very cold months of January, or February, these traits are to your advantage as they assist the sheep to keep its body temperature.

Another undesirable trait is that of skin folds. They produce a higher grease weight of fleece and for hand-spinners this excessively greasy fleece is harder to wash. Folds are a nuisance at shearing time, and the animal is more prone to cuts that can, if not properly cared for, become affected by flies. A recent study found that sheep with folds have a lesser fertility rate than those without.

Starting off in a small way gives you the opportunity to gain experience at low-cost. Should you happen to start with more sheep that your pastures can support, you have the opportunity to select your best ones, keep the best ewe lambs and sell the remainder. 

It is not unknown that a commercial sized flock has grown out of a homestead flock. A flock that began with one or two ewes has been known to grow into twenty or thirty, at which time the homesteader has to look for additional  grazing pastures or lease a field from a neighbor. A commercial flock – that is one with 1,000 to 1,500 ewes - needs two full-time shepherds and their dogs.

Management of your flock can be either, sustainable, intensive or extensive, with the high input being the intensive system and the low input being the extensive system.

METHODS OF MANAGEMENT

Intensive system of management:
The high input system currently found in the west requires a great deal of labor and cash for such things as fertilizers, pesticides, harvested feeds, veterinary services, machinery, and specialized buildings. Farmers who go in for high-input hope to produce enough sheep to cover those costs and make a profit regardless of the dictates of the market. However, for the inexperienced farmer the bills can outweigh the profitability of the herd, and  close attention to expenditure is a must otherwise nothing much is gained and the risk of loss is on the horizon.

Extensive system of management:
The low input system places far less emphasis on the volume of production and more on profitability. 

Sustainable system of management:
The sustainable system of management is the most natural way, farms look for maximize profit while protecting the environment at the same time. This system follows nature's ways such as lambing in the spring when the grass starts to grow.

Sheep production systems:
The most common form of sheep production today are:

Accelerated lambing:
Accelerate lambing means that each ewe lambs at least three times in 2 years. This system requires a high outlay of capital for facilities such as lambing barns, feedlots or barns. It also means that sheep must have the genetic capability of lambing more than once a year, and when extra good management is in effect to keep ewes healthy this can be done.

Winter-confinement lambing:
Winter-confinement lambing means that lambing occurs in January and February in lambing barns where lambs are able to nurse and self-feed in creep feeders. A creep feeder allows lambs to have access to choice feed but prevents ewes from getting at the feeder. Weaning is usually around two months after birth, after this time they are kept on their choice feed until there are marketed.

Phase lambing:
The aim of phase lambing is to have the ewes lamb only once a year. The flock is divided into three or four groups which allows lambing to continue throughout the year and thereby provides a continuity of lambs for the market. This system requires capital for building and feeding facilities, however, they can be less than that of either accelerated or winter-confinement lambing this is because only part of the flock is lambing at any given season of the year.

Early spring – confinement lambing:
When ewes lamb in March and April this type of confinement lambing is in a barn, the difference is that these lambs after having been weaned are then put out to pasture instead of creep feeding. 

Autumn lambing:
Autumn lambing is similar to early spring confinement lambing, however the capital outlay is in finishing facilities rather than lambing barns. Finishing facilities are those used to prepare the ewe/lamb for market or butchering.






Late-spring pasture lambing:
This is the most extensive system with fewer facilities, and less labor is   required, because the lambs are born in the pasture and are raised there until time for market.

Organic raising:
Organic raising is not the easiest method, this is because to be certified as organically raised the animal cannot be subjected to commercial worming medications that kill internal parasites which are a challenge to the farmer. Organic certification requires additional expenses coupled with the extra labor of record keeping. This subject will be dealt with later on in the book.

SHEEP BEHAVIOR
The more you understand your sheep the easier it will be for you to detect problems, for example is a ewe is sick or is it that she is about to lamb? 

A shepherd should know that sheep are afraid of noise, unfamiliar environments or unfamiliar things in their surrounding and include such simple things as a coat hanging on a shovel. They are also wary of strange people, dogs and water.

Sheep will move easily from a dark area into a light area, also from a confined area to an open area, from a lower area to a higher area, and of course, toward food. They follow one another and move away from people, dogs and buildings, and will cling to a wall in a pen. Should there be a tight corner, you will find them bunched up in them and staying there.
ö
There are three types of sheep behavior, normal, abnormal and learned. In the case of sheep their behavior stems from their position in the food chain. Because of their size they are vulnerable to animals that look at them as a tasty meal.

Normal behavior:
When sheep are behaving normally they are alert and content, their appetites are good and their eyes bright. They are social animals and that is why they flock together. When lambs are healthy and happy you will see them loving   to play, run, climb and jump and will do so for hours and then fall so sound asleep one might suppose them dead!

Learned behavior:
Sheep learn to adapt to a new environment, or to new conditions within their existing environment. When a shepherd is patient he/she will be able to train them to go into handling facilities, to go into new pastures and so on. They will also learn not to go near an electric fence, and other things to be avoided. 
   
Abnormal behavior:
When a sheep behaves abnormally it is usually related to stress or disease. Sheep have been observed eating wool, fighting, displaying lack of appetite, decreased communication with other members of the flock, lack of sexual performance, and aggressive tendencies. 

Stress related behavior most often occurs when sheep are in close confinement such as those found in intensive production systems – this rarely occurs in animals that are raised in an extensive pasture based system. Stress should not be left unchecked because it creates an environment that lowers resistance to disease. Relieving stress will be dealt with later on in the book.

Social structure of a flock:
Most breeds of sheep tend to flock together, however there are differences among breeds and differences among individual animals. Relationship is strongest between members of their own breed. It is not unknown that when two different breeds of sheep are shepherded into the same pasture, each breed will flock to a different part of the pasture and avoid each others part of the field. Relationships in a flock are strongest among family ties. An older ewe, her offspring, the children of their children and so on down the line, and all will behave as one unit.

In a flock of sheep there is a dominance hierarchy. When it comes to feeding in particular, sheep at the higher end of the hierarchy have a "pecking order" in which they make sure they get the largest share, with those lesser in rank are almost starving, therefore observe what is going on.

These dominant sheep are the more aggressive of the group, and their aggressiveness may have come about through age, size, sex or even early experiences. The dominant ewe in a flock will have dominant daughters, this could be the result of genes or else it could be something that is learned.

When it comes to breeding, the dominance of rams is easily detectable. They fight for the top position in the "pecking order". When a ram is about to fight you will find it backing up, then charging with head downward at full pelt to butt his victim on his head. The good news is that this type of fight usually ends when one ram back downs, but rams can be seriously injured or even killed during such encounters.

Leader-follower relationship is also strong among sheep. Strange as it may seem, there are times when the most dominant member of the flock is a follower. This is because of the stronger relationship among family members where the oldest ewe with the largest number of offspring becomes the leader of the flock.

Emotions and senses:
Sheep react to their environment, they use there senses as tools to investigate their surroundings and their reaction is indicative of their inner emotion.

As with other species, sheep are capable of displaying various emotions including those of happiness, fear and anger. If a sheep has had a bad experience such as being frightened when it entered a barn, that animal will always be fearful when the time comes to enter it again. One must remember that such reactions are genetically programmed in sheep as part of their survival program. The reaction of fear is part of their defense against predators, and remember, when they see you, they see you as a predator, so be patient with them, train them and over time they will trust you.

Sight:
A sheep's sight is its defense against predators, they rely heavily upon it. They have a wide field of vision and this allows them to see predators from far away, however, they do have a blind spot and that is from behind. When you approach them from behind they cannot see you, make sure to let them know you are there by talking to them.

Hearing:
Hearing is the second most important sense a sheep has. Their hearing is more acute than that of humans. Low pitched rumbling sounds do not disturb them, whereas if they hear a human yell or any high pitched, loud sound it will make them stressful. However, sheep can be trained to learn that certain loud sounds are not to be feared, i.e. the whistle one might use to call them for food. A sheep's hearing is so sensitive that it is able to pinpoint where subtle sounds come from.

Smell:
Smell is extremely important to sheep and is more sensitive than that of a human. When a ewe lambs, the first thing she does is to smell her newborn and this serves to identify her lamb from other newlyborns. The ewe recognizes her own scent from the amniotic fluid that coats her lamb, and later on from the smell of milk. As with cows when a calf is orphaned, the newly orphaned calf can be fostered by a mother that has lost its own by rubbing her amniotic fluid over the orphaned animal. Rams also use their sense of smell to detect ewes that are coming into heat, during this time ewes release a chemical pheromone which acts like a perfume to attract the ram.

Taste and touch:
Taste and touch are not as important as the other faculties. If something tastes good, the sheep will eat it, otherwise it will leave it. Touch is used in courting and bonding with a newly born. Sheep touch with their nose and you will often see them touching something new that has bee introduced into their environment. First of all it will approach the new object with an outstretched neck, sniffing the air, then it will touch the unfamiliar item with its nose.

WORKING WITH SHEEP
When the time comes for shearing or moving your flock, be patient and move slowly and work quietly. Animals are prone to stress, and by treating them in this way they are less stressed. Gentleness pays dividends, illness is reduced, production is improved, and there are fewer injuries. It is advisable not to work sheep during the month after which they have been bred because stress can cause abortion.

If your flock is in a large area and you need to move them this is often best accomplished with the assistance of a sheep dog who works with you. This subject will be discussed in full later in chapter 4. When using a sheep dog with your flock your work is made easier and you can herd them into the facility you want such as a catch pen, cute, or gates.

CHAPTER 2
BREEDING AND BREEDS

BREEDS
Purebreds:
A pure bred sheep possesses distinct characteristics and is one whose pedigree is registered with a breed association. The advantage of purebred is that they are greater in uniform appearance and production, and there is also the chance of extra income from the sale of breeding stock, however, this extra income can be absorbed in extra maintenance. The disadvantage of buying a purebred is that they are higher in their initial cost, and also there is the cost of registering their lambs.

Different breeds have been developed to cope with market needs and the conditions under which the animals are going to be raised. There are some breeds that thrive in hotter climates whilst others do better in cooler climates. Then there are breeds that have a higher rate of multiple births, but remember if you select one of these breeds you will have to give them more attention to ensure both survival and good growth. Some breeds are capable of breeding more than once a year such breeds are referred to as "out of the season" sheep.

Purebreds usually have certain desirable traits, however, inbreeding can also bring about undesirable traits.

Crossbreds:
Crossbred sheep are sheep with mixed blood. Very often crossbreeds produce better than purebreds and are known for their hybrid vigor.  

Hybrid vigor is a desirable quality and occurs when sheep of two different breeds are bred to each other, the most desirable traits of each breed surface rather than those that are less desirable, this in turn makes for hardier sheep with a more vigorous growth, and more productivity. The subject of crossbreeding will be covered in depth later on in the book.

BREEDS TO CONSIDER
If you decide you want to go for a particular breed, rather than a crossbreed, the following present some interesting characteristics from which you may wish to select.

Barbados Blackbelly:
This variety of sheep has the ability to lamb nearly twice a year. They are prolific, hardy and easy breeders. However, the ewes tend to be nervous around strangers and are very protective mothers. The Barbados is suited to hot, humid climates and have a good resistance to internal parasites and suffer little from heat stress.

Black Welsh Mountain:
This sheep originated in Wales. It is small, and extremely hardy and like cold climates. The ewes are well known for easy lambing, high fertility, and as good milk producers which ensures a rapid growth to their lambs. They are an independent sheep and very active which makes them somewhat difficult to fence in. 

Bluefaced Leicester:
A breed native to the UK. There are three Leicester breeds, the Longwool Leicester, the Border Leicester and the Bluefaced Leicester.


Longwool Leicester:
This is rare and has only just escaped extinction, it has a large frame, a mop of wool over the crown of its head, and its fleece is generally white and falls in long ringlets. It also adapts to a variety of environments.

Border Leicester:
These sheep are docile, easy to keep, prolific breeders, they make good mothers and are known for the quick growth of lambs. The ewes lamb on pasture in late spring and need little or no attention. They are of medium size, and have bare legs and an open face – both of which makes shearing easier. Although the Border Leicester has white wool, there are some that are colored. Their wool falls in locks and grows up to 12 inches (30 cm) after 12 months. Fleeces yield between 65and 80% and weigh between 8 to 12 pounds (3.6 – 5.4 kg). The wool of a Border Leicester dyes well and has a mohair-like sheen.

Blue Faced Leicester:
These sheep are quite prolific, they have good maternal instincts and are sheep with a medium to large size frame. Their head has dark blue skin – hence their name – covered with white hair. Their fleece is one of the finest longwool fleeces and semi lustrous, silky and its lock are pencil-like. 


Booroola Merino:
This breed of sheep is Australian. They are well known as prolific breeders and also for their high quality, fine wool. Booroola's have such a high lambing rate on account of a single gene, namely the 'F' gene that affects ovulation. In other breeds, ovulation is controlled by a large number of genes. Another excellent characteristic is that this breed can be bred out of season. 

Border Cheviot – sometimes referred to as Southern Cheviot:
This is another sheep native to the UK. Cheviots started as a mountain breed in the Cheviot Hills between Scotland and England. They are extremely hardy and known to cope well with hard, cold winters. They cope well with high altitudes and graze well upon hilly pastures. However, they lack herding instinct which is essential for open range raising, but do well in a small farm flock.

They are active, nervous, and alert in both appearance and behavior. Despite their nervousness, they make good mothers, and have a high percentage of twins, and their newborns are hardy. They have small heads, and this is a plus that contributes to easy lambing. They also known to produce good meat lambs.

As for their appearance they are short and have neither wool on their faces nor legs. Their nostrils are black as are their lips, and they have erect, sharp ears. Their fleece is light-weight and is easy to spin.

California Red:
The California Red is a crossbred between a Tunis and Barbados sheep. Its wool is superior and it produces good meat. They are medium sized with ewes weighing between 130 – 160 pounds (59-73 kg) and rams weighing between 200 to 250 pounds (90-113 kg). As for their fleece it yields about 7 to 8 pounds (3.0 – 3.6 kg) a year. The wool has reddish hair with a silky texture, which are both sought after by spinners and weavers.

The rams are active and aggressive even during periods of hot weather. The ewes make good mothers and have very few lambing problems and breed out of season. It is not unusual for breeders to target the birth of 3 lambs every two years. When the lambs are born they are red, however over time the wool lightens to an oatmeal color whereas their legs and face retain their reddish tinge. 

California Variegated Mutant:
These are sheep of medium size, and known for longevity and prolific lamb production as well as breeding out of season. The rams are aggressive and virile breeders. As for their fleeces, they are long and fine weighing on average 8 pounds (3.6 kg) a year. The fleeces vary in color, from white to gray to black, some have spots. Unlike other colored breeds their fleece does not lighten with age, rather they become darker. 

Clun Forest:
A native of Shropshire, UK. The ewes are prolific breeders and most times give birth to twins. Lambing is easy for them and rarely needs assistance because they have narrow, sleek heads and wide pelvic structures. Lambs can be bred as early as 8 or 9 months and give birth as yearlings. As for milk, the volume is high having a higher protein and fat content than other breeds, this ensures quick growth of their lambs.

Amongst their other advantages is that they adapt to various kinds of climates and all kinds of grazing conditions. They are also known for their longevity and good fleeces before the age of 10 –12 years.

Columbia:
These sheep adapt well to lush pastures of small farms and known for ease of handling. Their wool is medium and has light shrinkage and makes excellent, all-white fleece for hand spinning. As for breeding, they produce hardy, fast-growing lambs. 

Cormo:
The Cormo breed was developed in Tasmania and is smaller than Columbias but yield 70 to 74 % clean weight. Their fleece is fine and uniform under range conditions and sought after by spinners. It has outstanding qualities of well-crimped wool, excellent conformation, high fertility and is able to thrive in areas where there are heavy falls of snow, severe climatic conditions and rough terrain.

Corriedale:
This breed was developed in Australia and New Zealand. It is cross of Merino, Lincoln and Leicester. Its fleece is dense and medium fine with 56s grade. It is also soft and has a good length and light shrinkage and is sought after by hand-spinners. The Corriedale's face does not have wool below the eyes and is born without horns. It has a large frame; its wool is good as is its meat and has a long productive life. This breed has a strong herding instinct and does well on an open range.

Cotswold:
The Cotswold is a sheep believed to have been imported by the Romans, however, the Cotswold of today is a cross between a Leicester Longwool and a Cotswold. This breed is suitable for farmers with a smaller flock. They are docile which makes handling easy. As for their fleece it weighs between 13 to 15 pounds (6.0-6.5 kg) and there is very little shrinkage. It grows at a rate of about 1 inch (2.5 cm) per month and is quite lustrous, as for color, it is white to silvery gray. Because of the rate of fleece growth, farmers are able to shear twice a year.

Debouillet:
The Debouillet is the result of crossing Ohio Delaine Merino rams with Rambouillet ewes. They are open faced below the eyes and over the nose and have good wool covering over the belly, and shear heavy fleece of long-staple, fine wool. They are known to produce desirable market lambs having an excellent weight ever under harsh conditions.

Delaine Merino:
Merino wool is famous and the Merino sheep originate from Spain. The lambs are small and mature slowly, and the main income is from the sale of its fleece and breeding stock. The Merino fleece is heavy in oil, and like the Rambouillet loses much of its weight when washed. This breed in suited to open range as it has good herding instincts and can travel far for feed and water. They are hardy and of medium size and breed at any time of the year and make excellent mothers.

Dorper:
This breed originates from South Africa. It is a cross between a Blackhead Persian with Dorset horns. They are very fertile and have long breeding season, and are for the most part docile. They adapt well to a wide range of climates and can cope with hot, dry humid weather as well as cold. When raised in a cold climate they put on wool, and shed it in warmer weather and do not required to be sheared. As for its appearance, its body it is solid-white and has a black head.

Dorset:
The Dorset has very little wool on its face, legs and belly. Their frame is large and coarse, its skin is white. Its fleece is lightweight and good for hand-spinning. The ewes are good mothers, they are prolific and often produce twins. As for their milk, they are good milkers and have been known to be kept in dairies. It is possible for them to lamb twice a year as they breed early.

East Friesian:
This breed is German. It was raised for milk production and used in cheese making. Out of all European breeds, the East Friesian produces the most milk, coupled to this is that they are very prolific. East Friesian are large, and their lambs have good growth rates, however its meat is not the best. As for its fleece it is heavy – 48s to 50s wool.

Finnsheep:
This breed originates from Finland. Their birthing capabilities are astounding and because of this they are said to "lamb in litters". They have been known to have up to six lambs per lambing, however, three or four are normal for mature ewes.

Finnsheep ewes can be bred as early as 6 to 7 months. They are also used for crossbreeding. When a Finnsheep is crossed with a meat breed, their offspring are indistinguishable from those of a meat breed, however, the lambing percentage is greatly increased.

They are known to be good mothers, and lambing is easy. But to be successful, they do need exceptionally good care during the gestation period to meet the nutritional needs to support multiple lambs. If she gives birth to more than three, the "extra" lambs can either be left with her and given supplemental food or taken away and raised by hand.

These sheep have a friendly disposition and are popular with small flock raisers. The fleece of a Finnsheep is very soft and lustrous and sought after by spinners, it is usually white, however it can be black, gray, brown or have spots. As for their tails, they are short and consequently do not need docking.

Gulf Coast Native:
These sheep originate from the Gulf of Mexico. They roamed free on unimproved pastures in subtropical regions along the Gulf. These sheep can withstand hot, humid conditions under which parasites thrive and are perhaps the most resistant breed to internal parasites. This breed is less susceptible to foot troubles.

It is a small animal, with clean legs and an open face. The most common color is white, however they can also be black, brown or spotted. Their growth rate is slow as is their lambing percentage. If they are raised in sub-tropical conditions the percentage of lambs is higher than those of other breeds because excellent lamb survivability.  Lambs mature early, and ewes can lamb out of season.

Hampshire:
This British breed of sheep is not only the largest of the medium wool but also of meat. They are large and heavy weight and because of this rough, scanty pastures are not suitable to sustain them, they need good pastures, and their lambs can, more often than not, be sent for market directly from the grass of high quality pasture.

The ewes are good milk producers and fairly prolific, however, most likely because their head and shoulders are large, lambing is not always easy. Their lambs grow quickly and are known for good meat.

They have dark faces and legs that are a rich, dark, chocolate brown in color. As for their fleece it is lightweight and they grow fairly short, medium wool.

Icelandic Sheep:
These sheep originates from the frigid climate of Iceland. They have good conformation which is good for meat. They are also raised for their milk and wool. Its fleece is dual coated with its outer coat reaching around 15 inches (38cm). The inner coat is shorter and softer and comes in a wide range of colors.

Their herding instinct is poor and on this account the breed is best suited to small farms. They are alert and aggressive, and when it comes to feed time they are determined to get their share. They give birth to small lambs and are good mothers and can reach finishing (marketing/butchering) weight in 3 to 4 months if your pasture is good. Not only do the ewes mature easily but also rams and begin to breed at 8 months. As for their meat it has a fine texture with a delicious flavor. The wool is sought after by hand spinners and their skins are prized as beautiful rugs.

Karakul:
This breed of sheep originated from central Asia, and is one of the oldest breeds in the world. They are small, with fine bones and long droopy ears. They are hardy and adapt to a wide range of climatic conditions. Another plus is their longevity. As for their breeding season that too is fairly long and allows for out of season breeding. More often than not they produce single lambs, but multiple births are not unknown. 

When their lambs are born they are black and lighten with age. However, there are strains of blue and red. A lamb's pelt is tightly curled and sought after for its lustrous fur-like appearance. As for its fleece it is used for carpet making and is also good for hand spinning, and has an excellent felting quality. Their tail is fat and provides good tallow for soap or candle making. The meat of a Karakul is less muttony tasting than other breeds.

Katahdin:
The Katahdin breed of sheep has good conformation which means better meat production. It has a high rate of fertility, they make good mothers, lamb easily, and possess good flocking instincts. They are hardy, adaptable and low maintenance. As for their temperament they are docile and easy to handle. They fall into the category of medium-sized sheep. This breed is considered to be ideal for an extensive pasture lambing program.

Lincoln Longwools:
This is yet another English breed. They are the largest of sheep breeds, but mature slowly. Their fleece is long, dense, strong and heavy, and they have tufts of wool on their foreheads. They are fairly hardy and prolific breeders, however when it comes to lambing, their lambs need to be in a protective penning for the first few days.

As for its eating habits, it is not an active forager and therefore is best adapted to an abundance of good pasture as well as supplements. They do not tolerate cold rainy weather too well because their fleece parts down the middle of the back thereby allowing cold air to strike their backbone which a sensitive are on sheep. 

Its fleece resists deterioration. It is lustrous and sought after by hand-spinners on account of its durability and has an attractive sheen.

Montadale:
The Montadale is a cross between Cheviot rams and Columbia ewes. They have a small head which eases lambing, and are prolific lambers and also good mothers.

As for their fleece it has little shrinkage, and the wool grades as medium. These sheep are alert with an open face and clean legs.

Navajo-Churro:
This breed of sheep is that of Native Americans. It is hardy, and has a high lamb survival rate on a range.

Its fleece is double coated, with the inner wool being fine wool and the outer course and lustrous. It is used by the Native Americans for weaving.

North Country Cheviot:
The North Country Cheviot originates from Scotland, UK and adapts well to colder climates, hilly or rough terrain. The breed is dehorned and has an open face and bare legs. The Ewes are good milkers, easy lambers, and fairly prolific. 

They have a medium wool fleece with good staple length and is used in the weaving of the famous Scottish tweeds.

Oxford:
As one might guess, the Oxford originates from the county of Oxford, UK. They are heavy, large sheep. Their fleece has a good weight and medium wool. Their faces and legs are usually light brown, but can also be gray to dark brown with a white spot on the end of the nose.

These sheep are most valuable as a sire breed. Rams weight up to 300 pound (135.1 kg) and sire lambs with good muscles. They are well suited to small pastures and thrive well when given good feed.  As for the ewes, they are docile, heavy milkers and on account of them having small heads, lamb easily.

Panama:
A Panama is a cross between Rambouilett rams and Lincoln ewes. They are of good size, hardy, and hornless. Ewes make good mothers and produce a heavy amount of milk. Their fleece is heavy and weighs 9 to 14 pounds (4.1 – 6.4 kg) and is medium to fine.

Perendale:
This breed is a cross between Romney ewes and Cheviot rams, and developed in New Zealand. It is a breed well suited to hilly areas, and easy to care for. When it comes to lambing they do not need assistance, though they tend to be a little nervous and need gently handling.

Perendales have clean faces and legs. Their wool is generally white with a 4 to 5 inch (10-12 cm) staple which is prized by hand spinners, on account of its ease of spinning and makes goods good garments.

Polypay:
Polypay were developed in USA, from Rambouilett and Targhee, Dorset and Finnsheep breeds.

They are a superior lamb producing breed. Amongst their qualities is that they lamb twice a year, and their lambs have good quality carcasses. Ewes produce good milk and have a long breeding season. They are hardy and have good flocking instincts, 

The fleece of the Polpay is medium to fine and weights about 8 pounds (3.6 kg). Wool weight is higher in flocks that are bred less than twice a year.

Rambouillet:
This breed originates from France. They are handsome, very large and have strong bodies. Amongst their attributes is that they are hardy and possess excellent herding instincts, you will find them spreading out to graze during the day time but at night fall they gather closely together. They are an excellent breed for the open range. They are well adapted to a wide range of climates and feeds, and this makes them equally suitable for farm flocks.

Their carcass is desirable as is their wool. Ewes can be bred early and lamb in November or December. Lambs have a good yield of "boneless" trimmed meat. As for the fleece it is less oily than the Merino, and consequently shrinks less. Rams have horns, and both ewe and ram have white feet and open faces. Another advantage is that they show relatively strong resistance to internal parasites.

Rambouillet sheep are widely used as foundation stock in new breeds.

Romanov:
The Romanov breed can be compared to the fertility, body size, growth and carcass as that of the Finnsheep.

Ewes mature early at the age of 6 months and give birth when they are 11 or 12 months. They also have the ability to breed out of season. Lambs are born black with a silky hair coat over their wool. As they mature, this hair is shed and replaced by wool. Traditionally, this breed was raised for its "fur" in Russia.

Romeldale:
The Romeldale breed is a cross between Romney rams, and Rambouillet ewes. The ewes are excellent mothers and long lived. When it comes to lambing, they rarely have a problem and give birth to twins.

The wool of the Romeldale is medium to fine and shrinks very little, and makes more pounds of clean wool that is normally produced from fleeces of fine-wool breeds. The Romeldale lamb is very marketable.

Romney:
This breed originates from the Romney Marshes in the UK which is a low lying marshy area. They are more resistant to foot rot, liver flukes and other problems that other sheep in damp pastures encounter.

It is docile and thrives well on good pasture, but not on hilly terrain, or hot, dry climates. Their herding instinct is minimal so they are best managed in a farm flock.

Its wool is long but much finer and more lustrous than that of other long-wool sheep. As for their fleece, it does not tend to part along the back, so they do well in wet climates and is excellent for hand spinning. As for their meat it is of good quality and has a delicate taste.

Scottish Blackface – also known as Black Face Highland:
This breed is from the mountains of Scotland. It is hardy and a quick to mature meat animal.

The Scottish Blackface adapts to cool, damp conditions and do well on sparse forage. Ewes make excellent mothers. If left on a hilly range they are not prolific breeders, but become fairly prolific on good pastures.

Their coat is attractive and has excellent water-shedding properties. Its fleece is lightweight with long coarse wool. Its facial appearance is that of an unusual black and white marking, and a "Roman" nose. Both ewes and rams have horns.

Shetland:
This ancient breed is from the isles of Scotland. They are hardy and the rams are horned whereas the ewes are not. Their tails are short and therefore there is no need to dock. As for their wool it is fine, more durable than Merino wool and there are several ranges of color which is sort after by for hand-spinners. 


Shropshire:
The Shropshire hales from southern England in low lying country. It is of medium size and produces good meat lambs, however they eat a lot.

Southdown:
The Southdown is a pure bred sheep and one of the oldest in the world and holds its own among the best breeds of today.

Ewes produce medium sized lambs whose carcass is excellent. They adapt to varied climates and terrains.

As for their fleece they produce a medium wool fiber, 56s – 60s and is suitable for hand spinning into fine yarns.

Saint Croix:
The Saint Croix originates from the hot island climates of the Virgin Islands and have a strong tolerance for internal parasites. After having lambed they will breed back in 30 to 40 days. 

They are a medium sized breed, docile, and forage on scanty areas. Their herding instinct is poor, and therefore best suited to farms where there is better predator control.

Suffolk:
Yet another breed from UK. This breed has a black face, ears and legs free of wool and is very handsome.

The ewes are prolific and good milkers that contributes to the rapid growth of their lambs. Their meat is less fat than many other breeds.

Suffolks are active grazers and able to find feed on dry ranges. Should you raise them on high quality feeds then you can expect to have one of the fastest growth rates of any other breed as they have excellent feed conversion characteristics. Its meat has a superior texture.

Targhee:
This breed was developed in USA by mating Rambouillet rams to either ewes of the Corriedale and Lincoln-Rambouillet stock or ewes of only Lincoln-Rambouillet stock.

These sheep are large framed, and produce not only good meat but a heavy fleece weighing between 11 – 16 pounds (5-7 kg) of good, medium wool. They adapt to both farm and range conditions. 


Texel:
This breed has been popular in Scandinavian countries for other 160 years. They are hardy sheep and can adapt too many climates and conditions. As a foraging breed they do very well, they are lean, medium sized sheep and have a high muscle to bone ratio.

Ewes lamb once a year, however, when farm raised they have a high percentage of twins and triplets. As for their herding instinct, it is poor and not really suitable for open ranges. Their fleece is white of medium wool and they have no wool on either their face or legs.

Tunis:
The Tunis breed has been developed from Tunisian Barbary sheep. They are of medium size, hardy and docile. Ewes make very good mothers and can breed out of season. Under the right management they can be bred at almost any month during the year. When they lamb, the lambs are reddish in color and gradually lighten to white, although they do retain an unusual color of reddish tan hair on their faces and legs as well as their long, pendulous ears.

Tunis sheep do very well in warm climates and hot weather does detract from a ram's performance as they remain very active during very hot summer weather. These sheep are a superior breed for a hot climate however, they can be raised successfully elsewhere.

Wiltshire Horn:
This breed is an ancient breed from Britain. It grows hair and wool and sheds its wool each spring. 

They, both ewe and ram, are large horned animals. Their horns are somewhat impressive and curl. Rams weigh up to 300 pounds (136.1 kg).
They are hardy and do well on marginal pastures.


CHAPTER  3
PASTURE, FENCES, EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES

Sheep are really efficient at converting grass into meat, so the key to a shepherd's success is a good crop of grass. Good grass requires very little investment and consequently can turn into high profit.

Sheep lamb on pastures during the spring, which means that their lambs are ready for marketing in late summer or early autumn when pastures are on the decline. This is a great cost-effective advantage because it means to say that you will not have to feed them in winter on purchased hay and grain.

Sheep are known to be among the best grazing animals, even breeds with "poor" foraging abilities are still good grazers, but they do need high-quality pastures as they will not do well on rough, native pastures without you feeding them supplemental feed. 

Good pastures are the key element to successful sheep raising. Therefore, one must first learn how to manage pasture for both the plant's and your flock's need. There are many good reasons to manage a pasture, amongst which is that you are able to reduce feed bills, health problems such as parasites, dust-related illnesses and foot problems, are reduced, all of which lead to greater profitability.

FORAGING ABILITY
All sheep are by nature foraging animals, but there are those defined as "excellent" and do well on poorer pastures or ranges with little or no supplement. Those defined as "good" do well on good pasture with little or no supplement, where as those defined as "poor" do well on good pasture with supplements.

Excellent                               Good                                      Poor
Barbados Blackbelly                Bluefaced Leicester                  Booroola Merino
Black Welsh Mountain             Border Leicester                        Dairy breeds
Border Cheviot                         California Variegated Mutant     Finnsheep
California Red                           Clun Forest                                 Hampshire
Debouillet                                  Columbia                                     Oxford
Gulf Coast Native                      Coopworth                                  Suffolk
Hog Island                                  Cormo
Icelandic                                     Corriedale
Karakul                                       Cotswold
Katahdin                                     Delaine Merino
Navajo-Churro                            Dorper
Panama                                       Dorset
Polyplay                                      Lincoln
Rambouillet                                Leicester /Lincoln Longwool 
Romanov                                    Montadale
Romney                                      North Country Cheviot
Saint Croix                                 Perendale
Santa Cruz                                 Romeldale
Scottish Blackface                    Shropshire
Shetland                                     Southdown
Targhee                                      Texel
Tunis
Wiltshire Horn

PASTURE
A pasture is land in which forage plants such as grasses and legumes grow. They can also include brush and trees and are classified as one of two types:

Tame pasture:
This type of pasture is one that has been improved by seeding, or a native pasture consisting of whatever plants grow naturally in your area. Generally, such pastures are capable of a greater production per acre. Tame pastures  are those, generally speaking, that are subject to high rainfall, or irrigated fields in otherwise arid areas.

Native pasture:
Some native pastures provide well without the cost of developing a tame pasture. These pastures are mainly those found in mild climates where there is sufficient rainfall to replenish them.  

Factors to bear in mind when determining how many animals a pasture can support:
Type of soil – is it rock, sand, fertile, clay etc,
Species of plant already growing
Amount and time of rainfall
Availability of irrigation water
Temperature
Fertility of the soil
Type of land, is it hilly, flat or marshy
Whether lambs, ewes with lambs or dry ewes will be pastured on it.

The opinion of some shepherds is that an acre of really good, tame pasture is able to support four sheep throughout the year, whereas, rougher, native pasture may not be able to carry more than one. It is better to keep a few sheep in your first year and evaluate your growth and needs for the following year. 

Forage plants:
True grasses and legumes (a legume is any of a large family of plants having fruits that are dry pods and split when ripe. They include important food and forage plants such as clover) and forbs (weeds) are considered to be forage plants.
True grasses include such varieties as:
Timothy
Brome,
Bluestem,
Fescue.
Orchard grass,
Corn 
Monocots
Or plants that grown from a single leaf.

Legumes include:
Alfalfa
Clover
Bird's Foot Trefoil.

A nice thing about sheep is that they really enjoy eating weeds, whereas other livestock avoid them!

An ideal pasture:
An ideal pasture is one that has a mixture of grasses, legumes, and forbs. A variety of plants provides a more balanced diet for longer periods during the growing season under different weather conditions.

Sixty percent of grass to 40 percent legumes is the usual planting mix. If you are starting from scratch then you might consider to have a variety of both cool-season and warm season plants, the benefit is that cool season plants grow well in spring and autumn whereas warm season plant take over during the heat of the summer. Sheep do well on shorter sod-type grasses and legumes, such as bluegrass and white clover as they do not trample down as much as some others. It is better and works out cheaper to observe the different types of grasses your pasture will grow when the sheep are put on it. Check with your vet or neighbor farmers which forage plants grow best in your area.

Just as your sheep need food and drink, so does your pasture. Your pasture needs nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. True grasses derive these nutrients from the soil where as legumes can acquire of their nitrogen from the air trapped in the soil.

Deciding what kinds of fertilization program is most suitable for your pasture to optimize soil requirements is done through testing both soil and plant tissues. Soil tests are not so costly as plant tissue tests, however, plant tissue testing is more accurate. Should you select to use chemical fertilizers such as ammonium sulfate, several light applications through the year are better than one heavy application for the soil health and soil organisms.  

Fertilizers in humid areas:
The fertilizer that more often than not is the most cost effective is some kind of calcium supplement with lime being the most familiar

Fertilizers in high rainfall areas:
Needless to say, soil in areas that experience high rainfall suffer from leaching, or movement of nutrients down through the soil to such depths that plants are unable to benefit from, and calcium will leach quickly. When in doubt ask your vet about the deficiencies in your area.

CONTROLLING OVERGROWTH & REPLENISHING PASTURES
Perhaps you have purchased pasture that is overgrown with brush and excess weeds, or there are large bare spots and signs of soil erosion, if this is the case then your pasture is in need of replenishing.

Dealing with Overgrowth:
You have several options:
You can purchase a breed of sheep known to be an excellent forager, or consider investing in some goats as they do an excellent job; by continuation to strip the growth of the brush, the brush will eventually be killed. If your choice of breed is other than an excellent forager then you may need to do some mechanical clipping or mowing right away. Remember, if you are going to mechanically clip brush or weeds optimize the time of your clipping, this will save a tremendous amount of labor. The best time to clip weeds is just before they begin to flower and certainly before they go to seed and their seed head opens. The best time to clip brush is in the early days of spring, that is, when the sap starts to run.

Dealing with Bare Spots:
Should you have bare spots on your pasture, then make sure before you leave home to fill your pockets with pasture seed and simply toss handfuls of seeds on the bare places. Another approach is to feed bales of hay right on top of the bare spots during winter, the hay gets trampled into the ground and protects the soil surface thereby allowing seeds to germinate and grow.

Frost seeding:
Another way to rejuvenate your pasture or increase the variety of plants is frost seeding. Frost seeding is done early in spring when the nights are cold and frosty, but the days are warm enough to thaw the soil surface. This freeze-thaw action allows the seeds to be planted at a shallow level where they germinate more easily.

To frost seed, scatter the seed thinly over the pasture if it is small – otherwise use a tractor! Initially, the growth of the plant is somewhat slow, but as the leaves reach above the growth point, they sprout with more vigor. Once the plant reaches maturity, its growth slows down again. This is because the energy used for growth now switches to flower and seed production.

Forage plants:
Forage plants store extra energy in their roots. This stored energy can be used later on to jump-start new growth after the leaves have been grazed down or to make the first spurt of spring growth after winter sleep. If the plant is over grazed, the plant will keep drawing on its stored energy in its roots to grow new leaves until the energy supply is exhausted and the plant finally dies.

GRAZING
The traditional way to raise sheep is to put the animals out to pasture at the beginning of the season and let them stay there until the grass is no longer support them. This traditional way is known as "set stocking". The drawback is the pasture becomes both overgrazed and, under-grazed because of the sheep, how can this be? Well, sheep know and eat what they like best and leave plants that are unappealing uneaten! So what you get is some plants being eaten continuously while others are just left there to grow. Strange as it may see, the result of both overgrazing and undergrazing is identical because the plants lose energy and do not perform to their full potential, not withstanding that the plants die.

Managed grazing:
Managed grazing is also known as "rotational grazing", "intensive management grazing" or "planned grazing". It entails controlling your flock's access at grazing time, thereby optimizing the peak performance of the plants, which of course leads to better quality animals. 

The best way to manage grazing is to subdivide your pasture into smaller pieces – these are called "paddocks" - and move the sheep from one paddock  to another paddock in order to give the current grazing area a rest and chance to grow back.  There is another advantage to this, and that is many parasite larvae will die before the flock returns. 

It may take a little time for you to master, but the payoff is well worth the effort. Ask  your neighbors for advice as to what plants best suit your area. 

Some forage plants such as alfalfa, do not tolerate the pressure of continuous grazing that occurs in a "set-stocked" pasture, but will do so for a short period. Then, there are other desirable forage plants that grow much better when grazed hard and then given a rest. Managed grazing gets your sheep to eat better than they would do on a "set-stocked" pasture. Sheep enjoy fresh pasture that hasn't been trodden upon and by using this method of grazing they are kept on fresh pasture.

Timing the movement of a flock:
Timing is the key to managed grazing. Sheep should be moved from their current paddock before 50 to 60% of the forage has been grazed off. This is because most forage plants attain their maximum vigor and growth when no more than 60 percent of their leaf surface is removed during any grazing period. To simplify, if you put sheep into a paddock and the forage has reached the height of 6 inches (15cm), they can be left there until there is only 2.5 inches (6 cm) left standing.

The rest period of a paddock varies depending upon climate and season. In early spring it can be as short as 7 to 10 days, while in summer it may take as long as 45 days.  During the spring grass grows rapidly and you can move your flock from one place to another without concern, the best way is to let your sheep graze 20 to 30 percent and then move them on to the next paddock to take advantage of the lush environment.

PADDOCK MANAGEMENT
If possible try not to let the grass grow too high before bring your sheep to the paddock, because they will trample it down more than eat from it. Grass that has reached a height of 6 to 8 inches (15-20cm) is the ideal time for sheep to be put in a paddock. Sometimes a paddock, especially with the new growth of spring, may get too long, so cut the vegetation for hay or leave the clippings on the field to turn into  "green" fertilizer. 

The question arises, how many paddocks will I need. When you have a lot of paddocks the time spent in each paddock decreases and the rest period before the paddock is regrazed increases. The best answer is as many as possible with the minimum being four paddocks. If you have enough space eight is better, whereas twelve provides a lot of flexibility and control through all conditions.

Paddocks are best fenced with electric fencing, these barriers do not have to be as heavy or as high as perimeter fences.

ORCHARD MANAGEMENT
A favorite pasture on small farms in humid areas is an orchard, where sheep can take advantage of shade during the summer. However, care must be taken to make sure that the sheep do not consume too much of the fruit that falls to the ground. Needless to say do not let your flock into an orchard with easy, unlimited access to fruit, a sudden change in their diet can cause them to bloat as well as other problems, some of which can be deadly. A general starting guideline is, if there are fewer than six pieces of fruit lying around per animal, you should not have problems, but if the orchard is full of fruit, gather and remove them. You can introduce more fruit gradually over a period of week, soon they will become accustomed to the fruit and consume quite a lot without problems.

Subdivide your orchard with a temporary electric fence in the same way you would use in a pasture. A one acre (0.4 ha) orchard can be divided into three paddocks. If you have an apple orchard gather the good fallen ones and store them. These can be given to the sheep as treats during the winter. An important matter to remember is that an excess of apple seeds, especially the green seeds can be toxic!

Don't forget your trees, they too need protection. If you have planted new trees or grown a dwarf variety they must be completely protected using a strong fence because the sheep will eat the trees! Even with established trees sheep can display goat-like habits standing on their hind legs nibbling away at branches and leaves. If you leave the sheep in an orchard for a long period, they will start to chew on the bark of the trunks and this can do a lot of damage. If you are using the paddock system in your orchard then this won't be a problem.

Tree protection:
Wrap the trunks with several layers of chicken wire or a single layer of rabbit wire. Baling twine or wire can be used to secure these temporary protective cages. Do not make the mistake of making them permanent attachments because this will damage the tree. Should you opt for a more permanent protection then use three T posts formed in a triangle about 6 inches (15 cm) away from the trunk and make a fence out of wire mesh around the trees – these fences are durable.

Another way to protect your trees is to make "manure tea". This is made from sheep droppings and then painted onto the trunks – however, if it rains, you have to repeat the painting!

FENCING
Perhaps you have bought and old farm or homestead with fences and buildings. The fences must be checked before you buy your sheep and bring them home. As for the buildings you can work on them after you have your sheep so long as they are not about to collapse! 

The perimeter fence must be in good shape at all times to avoid escape. It is money well spent and a great time-saver because sheep can quickly learn to jump over sagging fences or crawl through loose strands of barbed wire. If one gets loose, others will follow, and as a good neighbor you do not want your sheep grazing contentedly on your neighbor's garden! Once a sheep has learned to jump it may continue to jump even after the fence has been repaired, and one jumping sheep sets the example for others to follow. If you get a jumper, then consider selling it or slow it down by attaching a temporary clog to its foot. A clog is a piece of wood that is strapped to one of the front ankles, and is sufficient to be troublesome to the sheep and prevent jumping.

You will have to learn how to construct a fence, ask experienced farmers for their advice and when you have finished, get them to take a look at it.

A well constructed perimeter fence serves two very crucial purposes. It keeps your sheep on your farm and helps to reduce the attack of predators. Interior fences are not as substantial as the perimeter fence. This is because their purpose is for your convenience and helps in management. If a sheep manages to get out of an interior fence, they will just graze in another paddock before you had planned. 



Perimeter fencing:
The fence should be at least 48 inches (1.2 m) high and tight, with only small spaces between the fencing material. It can be constructed from barbed wire, wooden rails, woven wire and smooth electric wire, or a combination. 

Barbed wire fencing:
Since the introduction of electric fencing, barbed wire fencing has become the least desirable choice for containing sheep. Barbed wire is difficult to use and animals that get caught up in barbed wire can get badly hurt. If you are thinking about using barbed wire for a perimeter fence, you will need eight strands of barbed wire which is difficult to work with, and it is costly.

Wooden rail fencing:
Wooden rail fencing is inefficient against predators, however, if one already exists or you decide to choose this type of fencing then at the bottom of the rail fence run barbed wire or an electric wire, this will improve its efficiency. When using this style of fencing the boards should be constructed on the inside of the fence in order that the sheep won't loosen them. Posts need to be close together and as a result this type of fencing is the most expensive.

Woven wire fencing:
Woven wire fencing is a combination of barbed wire or electric wires at the top and bottom and is the most common type of perimeter fencing and is effective in keeping sheep in and predators out. It needs to be stretched tort to be effective. It is available in different weights, including a high tensile version that will not get damaged by ice as would galvanized wire. High tensile wire has a long life, it will last for 30 years plus, it is lighter in weight and therefore easier to handle, the expense of this wire will pay for itself over the years.

Smooth wire electric fencing:
This type of fence is quite easy to construct and does a good job. The smooth wire electric fence should be at least five strands tall, and the sheep must be trained to respect and electric wire before turned out into pasture and this isn't the easiest of matters because their wool acts as an insulator. For their first encounter with an electric wire, wet its wool, once they receive a shock, they will avoid the fence. In preparation for releasing into the pasture train them in a small pen with well secured panels. 

One of the advantages of high tensile wire is that it an be stretched very tightly without breaking. Low tensile wire has less carbon and this makes the wire softer and will not last as long as it is prone to breakage. If you decide to use low tensile wire, then it should be constructed with a bit of slack so that if animals run in to it, it will give rather than snap, the advantage of low tensile wire is that it is easier to install.

Aluminum wire is one of the types of low tensile wire. It is a little more expensive than other low tensile wire but it has several extra advantages. First of all it is very light weight and therefore easy to install, it "whistles" in the slightest breeze and "glows" in the dark, so your flock knows where the fence is.

Temporary fencing:
Polywire is an electroplastic twine consisting of strands of wire twisted with strands of polyethylene fibers. There are many brands of polywire but the cheaper they are not so durable. If you decide on Polywire it will be more cost effective to spend a little more on the better quality because it will last for around 10 years.

Polynet is great for and alternative temporary fencing and has built-in posts.

Soft steel cable is great for semi-permanent installation and paddock subdivisions. The cost of this type of fencing is not much different from Polywire, and Polynet, and it is a better electricity conductor. The disadvantage is that the cable breaks easily if you frequently take it down and put it up. 

Posts:
Good posts are essential. If your posts are weak then your fence will not be strong. You need good posts to hold the wires in place so it is worth getting the right kind of posts for the job.
For permanent fences you can use either wooden posts, or metal T posts.

When you buy posts, choose ones that have been pressure treated, such as those treated with chromated copper arsenate (CCA), because they are very durable. Warning: Although CCA is one of the least toxic preservatives used to treat posts it is advisable to wear gloves when working with treated posts as you may be allergic to the chemical. 

Metal T Posts can be driven straight into the ground with a fence post driver. They are a very good type of post to use. If you decide to construct your fence with a smooth-wire electric fence and use a plastic insulator to attach the wire to the T post.

Fiberglass and plastic posts. These posts are great for temporary fences. However, sunlight eventually breaks down the fiberglass particles, so be careful to pick up these particles. 

Corners and Ends:
Wooden posts that are used for corners and ends must be buried to at least one third of their height. So, an 8 foot post (2.4 m) should have at least 2.5 feet (76 cm) below the surface and 3 feet (90 cm) is preferable. Don't forget, if the post needs to support a heavy wooden or metal gate, it needs to be at least 4 feet (1.2 m) deep to counterbalance the weight of a gate. The soil that you replace around them must be made solid. If you live in a sandy area you will need earth anchors to secure the posts. If you place wooden posts in concrete, it is not practical, because wooden posts in concrete rot at ground level.

FACILITIES
To get yourself started your basic needs are: sufficient land, fences and a first-aid box for both animals and yourself. 

Buildings, handling and farm equipment are not an absolute necessity but they can make life much easier. If you choose to follow the intensive management approach in which your ewes lamb in winter, they are an absolute necessity.

1. You should determine your needs according to your goals and should ask yourself:
Are you trying to make a living as a commercial shepherd, or do you want to keep a dozen or so sheep for personal use.
2. A big consideration is your finance, are you relying on your sheep to make a profit. Do you have a job, or a part time job? Now consider the amount of time you will be able to spend on caring for your sheep.
3. Will there be times when you will be away from your sheep for long periods?

Things to bear in mind when designing handling facilities:
Sheep prefer to move uphill and toward open spaces, they move away from buildings. If they are or have been frightened by something either in a barn or pasture they will either move away from it or be reluctant entering. Sheep do things instinctively, and it is well known that they move toward other sheep and follow one another.

Buildings:
Sheep farm barns have two purposes, one is for storing feed and supplies, and the other is for winter lambing, so depending upon the time of year you plan to lamb whether or not you need such buildings is for you to decide. Small flocks that lamb in late spring or early summer on pasture do not require buildings, and grain and minerals for a small flock can be stored in  a moisture proof, rodent proof,  large plastic container with a tight fitting lid. If your sheep happen to come across a feed container that is not well sealed, they will gorge themselves on the contents and this leads to bloat and can be disastrous. When it comes to hay, you can store it under tarpaulin cover. 

If you feel your spring/summer lambs may need some kind of shelter to protect them against the weather, then consider making an inexpensive portable structure so they can take shelter.
A portable structure with a sloping roof that enables rain or melting snow to run off easily is also very useful for large flocks that lamb on pasture, when it can be turned into a lambing shed, or a handy place to store supplies and feeds. Trees offer a nice shade for sheep during the hot days of summer. 

If you have bought an existing farm, there is a possibility that there will be some old buildings that you can use or remodel to suit your needs.

If you are considering a building, then think about making one that looks like a hooped shaped greenhouse, making sure there is good ventilation. These types of buildings have semi-circular hoops covered with plastic sheeting which are beneficial in cold climates. A building such as this can be partitioned off into internal "paddocks" where young lambs can be raised.  Another alternative is to use straw bales that provide warmth to make your shed, but the shed should not be too warm as this can increase the chance of sickness.

Lambing facilities:
Ewes lambing for the first time can be somewhat nervous or confused at what is happening to them, or their maternal instincts may not have yet been fully developed. Should you find one or your ewes in this condition then it is best to keep it in a building, with a small pen large enough for one ewe and her lamb, and keep them there for several days after lambing. On average 3 days should suffice once they have become accustomed to nursing, then once you feel the ewe and lamb have bonded then she and her lamb can be put in a pen with other ewes and their new borns. Ewes that have already lambed need to be alone with their lambs for only 1 day. Mature ewes prefer a larger area for actual lambing where there is sufficient room for them to walk about before going into labor. Needless to say, a lambing pen is essential if your lambs are born in the winter, but they can also come in handy for pasture lambing.

An advantage of a lambing pen or "jug" as it is called, is that it provides confined space if help is need for a difficult birth where you can keep your eye on the ewe's progress. If you have decided to raise sheep that are large, or breeds with large heads that can have a few problems when giving birth, or ewes such as the Finnsheep that have multiple births (in which case they will need a larger pen to accommodate the happy family), then a lambing pen is a blessing for both you and her. A lambing pen also has the advantage of preventing a lamb/s becoming separated from its mother, it also protects the lamb from been trodden on by other sheep, or becoming wet and cold. During this time of lambing never allow dogs or even strangers to approach the lambing pens. Frightened or nervous ewes can loose their cool and the consequences can be devastating.

It is essential that lambing pens have clean bedding, and are fitted with a small hay feeder and a container of water that cannot be spilled and dampen the bedding. A 5 gallon (19 liter) bucket is good. It is important to have the bucket high enough to avoid the lamb drowning in it, also bedding should be kept away from it. A lambing barn must not only be clean but it must be dry and free of drafts but not warm. Drafty or warm barns can cause pneumonia in young lambs and on occasions their mothers. If your barn is closed without proper ventilation, ammonia from fecal decay and urine will build up and this irritates both eyes and lungs which is another contributing factor for pneumonia and cause of respiratory disease. A barn should be cleaned out on a daily basis and replaced with fresh bedding with a small amount of lime being placed on the floors.

There is another approach to barn hygiene that is called "deep bedding". Deep bedding is a build up of an 8 inch (20 cm) thick layer of bedding that can consist of straw, wood shavings, sawdust, shredded paper, or dry leaves. Every day or so the dirtiest spots of the surface of the bed are removed and fresh bedding is added to create a clean, dry environment. This arrangement need only be replaced once a year. An advantage of this method is that the bedding you remove is already partly composted, and if you pile it up outdoors and let it compost for a year or a little bit longer, you have an excellent fertilizer for your garden. This method is in use in Sweden where it has become mandatory for farmers who keep their animals indoors.

When a ewe lambs outside in a pasture, it is not too difficult to get her to come into the lambing pen, just gently pick up the lamb and slowly, staying relatively close to the ground about  one foot (third of a meter) so she can see it and she will follow. Staying relatively close to the ground is important because that is where the ewe expects her lamb to be and will instinctively look for it there. If she can't see her lamb, then instinctively she will run back to where she lambed to look for it.

HANDLING FACILITIES
A well designed handling facility consists of a gathering pen, a forcing pen, chutes, and sorting pens. Although they are not an absolutely necessity for small flocks, they are for large ones.

These types of pens should have neither sharp corners nor right angles. They should have at least one gate wide enough to drive a vehicle or tractor into. Design your pens to be long, and rectangular with curved ends rather than circular pens, however, both types do the job.

You have a choice of which handling facilities to select, there are connecting prefabricated panels, which you can purchase or you can opt for one that is a permanent construction. The advantage of prefabricated panels is that they are portable, relatively light to move around, and flexible to suit your changing needs. These panels can be added too as your flock increases. The advantage of a permanent structure is less cash outlay. 

Gathering pen: 
A home made gathering pen can be made out of woven wire, seven strands of smooth wire, or rails. It should be a good size, i.e. 5 to 6 square feet (about 0.5m sq) for mature sheep and 3 to 4 square feet (about 0.3 m sq) per feeder lamb. If you make one that is 12 feet wide (3.6m) or narrower, you can reach the sheep on either side of you with your crook (a shepherds stick with a hook) while standing in the center. 

All pens, no matter whether they are gathering pens, forcing pens, sorting pens should have an outer wall of 3.5 to 4 feet (1-1.3m) high. A gathering pen must be large enough to accommodate all the sheep you have at one time, with lots of room to spare. It is a good idea to keep water tanks and salt blocks in these pens, and feed treats, in this way the sheep will go straight in without much of a problem and when they are busy enjoying their treats close the gate! 

Forcing pen:
This type of pen is used to confine smaller groups, and when necessary, to force them to go into chutes. If you have a small flock, your forcing pen can also be used to collect sheep in them for shearing or, placing them in "sheep chairs" where you can trim their hooves. 

A forcing pen should have solid sides. The home-made pen should have solid sides and made out of either plywood, metal or boards. It is necessary for the pen to be heavy duty because of the pressure of the sheep against the side walls could otherwise break.

Chutes:
The purpose of chutes is for medical treatment and sorting. It should have solid walls, and be narrow enough to ensure that the sheep enter in a single file. Gates can control the entrance and exit from the chutes.

If you have a small flock a 15 – 20 foot (4.5-6.1 m) long chute is sufficient.

If you have a large flock i.e. more than 150, you can benefit from increasing the chute length to 15 feet (4.5 m) per hundred animals. 

Chutes should be solid sided and have a 4 inch (10cm) gap at the bottom to allow air to circulate through the chute. Sidewalls can be 3 feet (0.9 m) high for most sheep, however, if your sheep are of the tall breed variety increase the height of the walls a little.

Sorting gates:
These are designed to make the job of dividing sheep into groups easy. They are handy for running the flock through the system when its time to wean the lambs, and make for quick separation of the ewes from the lambs. These gates should be lightweight and easy to use, but they must be strong enough to stop oncoming animals. Gates can be made from wood but bear in mind wooden gates are heavier and slower than steel or aluminum gates.

The sorting pen can be constructed similar to the gathering pen, the difference is that they have internal fences that separate sorting pens and can be shorter, about 3 feet (0.9 m) high, and this allows you to cross between the two pens.

SCALES
For a small flock, lambs can be weighed by making a sling (a sling is something used to hoist or carry) from either plastic or burlap that is then attached to a hanging scale. This type of scale is economical, however they are only practical for weighing younger lambs. As for weighing mature ewes it is very difficult to get a full grown ewe into a sling and then onto the scale, it is possible, but watch out for your back!

For larger flocks a scale is advantageous. They have several benefits, one of which helps you to track production, assess feeding programs, and accurate weight at time of sale. However, a good scale is very expensive, but will last.

A point that should be remembered is one called "shrinkage". Shrinkage is loss of weight. If a sheep is weighed on your farm under normal circumstances and surroundings that weight will not be the same as when you get it to a sale barn or to a butcher. This amongst other things 
is because sheep, like cows, suffer from stress and this causes weight loss. "Shrink" occurs   on the distance of shipment, weather conditions, and whether feed and water were readily available in transit. "Shrinkage" can be as high as 10% of an animal's weight, but in most cases it averages around 3%.

Estimating weight:
If a scale is out of the question for the time being you can try this simple method that provides you with a good estimate of a sheep's weight.

First, measure all the way around the sheep's body just behind the front legs – if your animal has a full fleece to get a more accurate estimate part the fleece and then take the measurement.

Second, measure the length of the body from the point of the shoulder to the point of the rump which is just before the tail.

Third, multiply the first measure twice then multiply the second measure and divide by 300.   

Restraining Equipment:
This type of equipment is useful when it is time to handle sheep for medical purposes and foot trimming and makes life a lot easier.

If yours is a small flock, that is less than 12 animals, you probably won't need to spend on restraining equipment, but as your flock increases and profits start to roll in, you might want to reconsider.

For large farms a turning cradle and freestanding tilt tables are a great asset.

A sheep is unable to turn over once it is laying on its back with feet up in the air, what is called a sheep chair is an inexpensive investment. The chair hangs over the edge of a panel and is capable of adjusting to a comfortable fit for all sizes of sheep.

 A New Zealander invented what is called "gambrel restraint". This is a plastic device and is the least expensive restraining piece of equipment available and is good for small flock owners. The gambrel immobilizes an animal's front legs.

FEEDING FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT
The only feeding equipment small flock owners need is a few rubber feed pans for feeding grain, and a slightly larger rubber pan for water. We suggest rubber pans because they are all but indestructible and not at all expensive. If your farm is in an area where it freezes during the winter, the pan won't crack and all you have to do is just turn it upside down to get rid of the ice. As the flock increases in size there are a variety of feed equipment to choose from which makes feeding much easier, such as troughs and self-feeders.

As for young lambs there is a special feeder called a "creep feeder" these feeders are semi circular with a food trough on the straight side and are easy to make. The beauty of these feeders is that it only allows lambs to enter to get extra feed because its entrance is too small for ewes to come and enjoy themselves. You should position your pasture creep feeder somewhere where it is sheltered, with access to good fresh water every day, it should be bedded with clean hay or straw. However, if you have it in a barn, it should be well lit, because lambs prefer it that way and eat much better. A hanging reflector lamp 4 or 5 feet (1.2-1.5 m) above it will attract the lambs, and they can start using it when they are around 2 weeks old.

A feed trough is used for feeding grain, not only does it save feed, but it also cuts down on parasite problems, and is inexpensive.

FARM EQUIPMENT
It is not necessary for a shepherd to have tractors, and other major heavy equipment. They are expensive, require maintenance, not used all year round and depreciate. Instead of investing in such equipment, lease the machinery as and when you need it, or contract a neighbor to do the work for you.



CHAPTER 4
SHEEP DOGS

In Islam, it is forbidden to have a dog as a pet, however, if it is a guard or work dog it is permissible to keep them in an outside dog house.

As we mentioned before, sheep have a strong desire to group together when they fear a threat, and because of this they are well suited to be worked by dogs.  

To be a really great help to a shepherd the dog's training must be adequate, and a shepherd must observe to know their dog's ability.

A well-trained dog can be an enormous help and into the bargain it can greatly reduce the amount of equipment required for sheep handling. For example, a dog can drive a flock from one pasture to the next, it can guide one or many sheep into corrals or stock trailers, or work with you as you operate a squeeze chute when its time for checking pregnant ewes, shearing, or worming.

Herding dogs:
It may surprise you to know that a good dog can single out one animal without moving the entire flock to a sorting facility, and during lambing it can help bring in expectant mothers.

A herding dog also helps you count your sheep by filtering them along a fence and making it easy for you. When feeding time comes around, your dog can be of great help keeping the sheep away from the feeders until you have had a chance to spread the feed.

Should sheep escape, a herding dog is extremely useful, it will gather them  together with hardly any effort and bring them back. If you don't have a herding dog, then you have a big problem on your hands trying to recapture them! Herding dogs are as it were, a second pair of hands.

Some herding dogs may act to a certain extent to protect/guard their sheep, but they should not be expected to act as a guard dog. In fact a herding dog should not be left unsupervised with the sheep. This is because it has been bred and trained to move and control animals. If it is left without supervision, it is unlikely that the dog will allow the flock to graze freely in what to them is an "uncontrolled" manner. Young herding dogs need very close supervision during their early working days, but as they mature they learn when their intervention is required and when to leave alone.

Characteristics of Herding Dogs:
The character of a herding dog should be instinctive. It should have some idea what to do with the flock, and instinctively want to keep the sheep in a group and head off any sheep that try to escape from it. Of course, the relationship between shepherd and dog must be one of understanding. The dog should have a desire to work with the shepherd, accept his/her commands while herding the sheep and be willing to respond to the wishes of its handler rather than doing things "his way".   

A well trained, well-bred dog allows one person to manage a very large flock with minimal physical effort and trouble. However, any dog that respects sheep can be of some use to the handler of the flock. Take for example, the untrained dog that barks and chases after sheep, this dog isn't a write off, he can be used to push the sheep into chutes or through gates, but you may need to keep him on a leash at other times.

Almost any dog can with some training have a desire to "go after sheep:. It can be taught how to assist you to move the sheep around, however, a non-herding dog must be carefully watched because originally he was motivated by a predatory instinct and this might be lying dormant in him, and he might become a threat to the sheep. Any kind of dog should be restrained or supervised when he is not working with the handler. When you decide to get a herding dog buy from a breed that is common to your area.

BREEDS OF SHEEP DOGS
There are three very general types of sheep dogs, the gathering dog, tending dog and driving dog. A good herding dog should be able to do all of the herding related work on your farm. Gathering dogs should be able to drive, and tending breeds should be able to gather.

Gathering Breeds:
The Border Collie is perhaps the most widely known "gathering dog" but there are others you might wish to consider. Kelpies, Australian Shepherds, Collies, Bearded Collies.

Border collies have been selected for many years on account of its working traits. They are natural herders with an ability to gather sheep out of a field. They have an inborn sense of distance to work off the sheep to keep them quiet.

Tending Breeds:
A tending dog is one that original helped shepherds to graze their sheep around crops. This type of dog would take their sheep out to graze and then patrol them along the grazing area and thereby keep the sheep restricted to the unfenced space where they were meant to graze. This breed includes, Belgian Malinois, Belgian Sheepdogs, Belgian Tervurens, Bouvier des Flandres, Briards, German Shepherds (known as Alsatians in the UK) Beauceron Pyrenean Shepherds and Pulis.

Driving Breeds:
These breeds of dog were bred to help drovers (sheep movers) to market along country lanes. One of the most popular dog for this job is the New Zealand Huntaway, these dogs are capable of driving very large flocks of sheep by barking and moving back and forth behind the sheep. Other breeds include, Welsh Corgis, Old English Sheepdogs, and Australian Cattle Dogs.

SELECTING YOUR DOG
You can start with a puppy, or buy a mature dog that has been trained. A puppy of course is the least expensive, but it won't be ready to work for some time and will require a lot of training from you, and there is the possibility that he may not be up to the job. 

With a mature, trained dog you know he has been doing his job for sometime and knows what is expected from him, but of course he is more expensive than a puppy.

The puppy:
If you decide to go for a puppy, it is a good idea to take a look at its parents and their working ability. You should see both parents working to see if their puppy could meet your needs. 

Both parents should be able to gather a group of sheep a few hundred yards away from the shepherd and fetch them to him/her in a quiet controlled manner. They should be able to hold the sheep in a group for the shepherd, single out an individual sheep and control it without the use of force. They should be able to move the sheep without difficulty or force, and demonstrate a gentle, but firm ability to move the sheep in the way that would not upset ewes during the last stages of pregnancy.

If you are buying from a breeder, the breeder should be willing to provide you with the names of his customers. You can then speak to these people to see how their puppy turned out. You should get a vet to check the eyes of the parent dogs to ensure that they are clear of progressive retina atrophy (PRA) and "collie eye anomaly (CEA). Both these conditions are heredity and can lead to some loss of sight or blindness. Needless to say, you should check the health records of the parents.

Puppy inoculations:
Puppies should have been treated for hookworm and round worms when they were 3 weeks old. They should have received their first inoculations for several highly contagious diseases including canine distemper, parvovirus, leptospirosis, coronavirus, hepatitis and a variety of respiratory diseases. The inoculation given for these diseases before the puppy leaves the breeder is just the first in a series of inoculations that need to be given at 3 – 4 week intervals until the puppy is 17 weeks old and full immunity is reached. Once the puppy has reached 16 weeks, have it inoculated for rabies.

Puppy training:
To start, a puppy should be taught how basic behavior, that is to come when it is called, walk on a leash, and lie down on command. Most well-bred herding dogs begin to show interest to work sheep as early as 8 weeks to 12 months, but it is important not to leave the puppy unsupervised with the sheep. The puppy could hurt the sheep or vice versa if left unsupervised. 

The ideal age to start formal training is between 10 and 12 months, this is because the first instinct they show is to get ahead of the flock and turn back the escaping sheep, before this time it is difficult for a puppy to run fast enough to catch the sheep! Dogs that begin training before they can outrun sheep, will quickly learn to chase them - you do not want that – rather than try to turn them back to the shepherd.

Once training is underway and it begins to work the sheep, one of the first things is that he should be encouraged to keep them in a group. The sheep need to learn to respect the dog and move away from it. Once the dog has learned to hold the group together, then it is possible to begin to back away from the sheep with the dog on the opposite side of the sheep. Then, the dog should be encouraged to walk up to the sheep and move them toward the handler – this technique is called "fetching" or "wearing". 

The young dog, should quietly and not to fast learn move the sheep with a purpose. The dog should be taught to stop and walk up on command.

It is important not to expect too much from your young dog at the beginning of training. Give him time to gain confidence in his ability before expecting him to move difficult sheep. Patience is the keyword and will more than pay for itself in the end and you will have a dog that can walk up to any sheep and be confident that the sheep will move away.

If your herding dog has been bred from good stock, it should be able to learn lessons quickly, and by the time it is 12 or 13 months it should already be a useful helper – but remember he is still young and may need assistance.

THE TRAINED DOG
The level of training varies from "started" to "finished". A starter dog should be able to gather sheep about 200 yards (182.8 m) and bring them to the handler with just a few commands. When the command is given the dog will stop and 
walk up to the sheep.

A fully trained dog is able to gather sheep at any distance and drive the sheep in a controlled manner at several hundred of meters away from the handler, it should also be able to drive the sheep into a shed and control a single sheep.

BASIC COMMANDS
The commands a trained dog in the west will be familiar with are:
"Come-by" which means travel around the sheep in a clockwise direction.
"Way-to-me" means travel around the sheep in a counterclockwise direction.
"Down" means stop moving, either stand or lay down.
"Walk-up" means move toward the sheep.
"Look back" means leave the sheep and go to look for another group of sheep somewhere else.
"That will do" means stop working and return to the handler.



CHAPTER 5 
PREDATORS: HOW TO PROTECT YOUR FLOCK

Predators can be a problem, depending on what part of the world you live in you may have to be on the look out for different animals. In the west, coyotes, dogs on the loose, foxes, birds of prey such as eagles, hawks, and ravens are common predators. 

Not all predators actually kill sheep. They also have a role to perform in nature as they keep the population of deer, elk and such like from over grazing the ecosystem. They also hunt small rodents and rabbits, and we must realize that they are just following their survival instinct. The target of a predator is focused on young, old, weak or sick animals, although mature healthy animals can be their target. Predators become more active during periods of drought when they are hungry at which time they are not particular what they hunt as long as they have a good meal.

DISCOURAGING PREDATORS
The following are some useful tips to help you guard against predators:
First: keep guardian animals near at hand such as donkeys or dogs.
Second: at night use lighted corrals with high, predator tight fences.
Third: keep your sheep in an open field in sight of your house.
Fourth: use traps around fence lines. If you live in the west check to see it this is legal.
Fifth: have a gun, even if it is only a pellet gun it can drive away an attacking dog. Trying to target a dog among sheep is not easy, but just a shot in the air may do the trick as they are fearful of such sounds.
Sixth: Use propane exploders that produce loud explosions. Radios or other noise making devices can provide temporary relief. However, the draw back is that they loose their effectiveness if they are not moved, volume changed, and programmed to turn on and off at various times.
Seventh: Using a combination of strobe light (a strobe light is a device that emits high-speed flashing illumination) and siren, have been proven to be very effective.
Eighth: Remove any dead animal far away from your herd to reduce enticement.
Ninth: If you lamb out of doors in the spring schedule lambing later in the season because after a long winter most predators are hungry, and feeding their own babies. By late spring and early summer there are lots of other animals for predators to hunt such as rabbits and deer, and the chance of an attack on your herd is reduce.

How to tell if your sheep have been victimized:
If you find a dead sheep and suspect its death was caused by a predator, take a good look around the dead sheep. Look for signs of a struggle such as drag marks, torn wool caught on a bush, spots of scattered blood. If there is no sign of a struggle take a closer look at the sheep. Animals that have been fed upon by scavengers after dying do not bleed under the skin at the bite marks. This type of bleeding is known as subcutaneous hemorrhage, and only happens when the heart was beating at the time the bites were inflicted. When a subcutaneous hemorrhage is present, the next thing to do is to try and find out what kind of predator attacked. Close examination of both tooth spacing, size, feeding habits, and pattern of killing can help you to identify the predator.

Attack of Coyotes:     
When a coyote attacks it usually attacks at the throat, but they have been known to grab at the haunch, bite the top of the neck, or attack in the soft flesh under the belly. Their preference is for lambs rather than sheep unless they are desperate. Smaller lambs, old sheep, or crippled ewes are the most common victims rather than healthy middle aged ewes. If there is a set of twin lambs, the coyote will go for the smaller of the two. To protect your other lambs, put a livestock protection collar on the most vulnerable of your lambs, this protection collar contains a poison that the coyote ingests when it attacks the lamb's throat. The advantage of the collar is that it gets rid of the offender. Before using this collar check to see if it is legal to use them in your area.

Predator dogs:
These dogs can be more dangerous than coyotes, as one or two dogs can maim and destroy dozens of sheep in just one night, and this can really affect your profit for the year. Many farmers have been driven out of business on account of dogs. Dogs grab at any part of the sheep they can get hold of, however, sheep often survive dog attacks, but many are badly injured. It is not just the large dogs that cause the problem, small dogs that are too small to kill can cause heart failure in older ewes, and pregnant ewes to abort. A dog's feeding habit is similar to that of a coyote.

Other kinds of predators:
Foxes and wolves. A wolf will attack mature sheep and tend to hunt in packs of two to four animals.

Foxes on the other hand go for fairly small lambs.

Eagles and other birds of prey occasionally kill lambs. Their killing tactics are dropping out of the air at a high speed and closing their talons (sharp feet) into the head. Eagles will strip a carcass and just leave its victim's skin and backbone.

Check to see if there are any laws that prevent you from killing a predator.

GUARDIAN ANIMALS
Because sheep are docile animals it makes them easy victims. There are animals that become quite aggressive when predators invade their territory.

Dogs, ponies, donkeys, mules and cows can all be used as guardians.

Attacks usually occur either during the night or in the early hours of the morning when you are asleep. A guardian animal is on duty 24 hours a day and is most alert and protective during hours of danger. Some guardian animals have actually killed predators, however, their presence and behavior can reduce or even prevent attacks. Guardian animals will chase a dog or coyote but they should not chase to far away. If a guardian animal chases a predator for a long distance or time it is not a good thing because as a guardian it should stay near the flock between the sheep and danger.

Your choice of guardian needs to bond with the sheep, and this can take time. They should be introduced slowly to the sheep, across a fence in a small area rather than a large pasture. Generally, one guardian is sufficient on a farm. As for an open range you will need at least two, and the bigger the better.

Guardian dogs:
If you have a small farm, a guardian dog can be most effective, or if you have a ranch with good perimeter fences. Farmers place great value on their guardian dogs knowing that they are their looking after their sheep. 

Be sure to introduce your neighbors to your guardian dog, otherwise they may mistake it for a predator dog and kill it.

The puppies of a farmer who raises sheep and dogs is a good choice to buy from.

Your future guardian – the puppy:
Needless to say, a puppy is going to cost far less than a dog that has already proven its worth. But for those of you who are new to sheep raising it probably worthy paying the extra expense to have a dog that has proven its ability to guard. Not all puppies turn out to be good guardians.

However, if your choice is a puppy, then the ideal age to remove him from the litter is when he is about 8 weeks old and put him with your sheep. When selecting a puppy that hopefully will turn out to be a good guardian, check its parents. They should not be shy or too aggressive and should be checked for any hereditary joint problem that can occur in large breeds. All puppies should have had their first inoculations by the age of 8 weeks and a veterinarian certificate is proof that he has had his shots.

Problems that can occur with guardians:
You must watch out to see if a puppy is too playful with your flock, because this playfulness can turn deadly. A "dangle stick" is a simple but effective way to teach a playful puppy not to be playful with the sheep. A "dangle stick" made from a thin board or stick 18 to 30 inches (45.7 – 76.2 cm) hangs from a swivel hook and chain on a dog's collar. When the dog stands up, the stick should hang 3 to 4 inches (7.6 – 10.2 cm) above the ground. This device allows the dog to eat, drink and display submissive and investigative behavior toward sheep, but when he tries to run, or rather chase, the stick becomes tangled around his leg. This device provides immediate discipline and prevents playful chasing. If your puppy is playful tie it to him for 3 to 4 weeks and then remove it in stages. To do this first remove the stick but leave the dangle chain, then take away the chain when the playful behavior stops. Be on the lookout for their guarding ability, some lack this ability and will just roam from the flock. Another thing to watch for is a guardian's aggressiveness with people. Also some guardians interfere with the working or moving of the flock. Pay attention to destructive behavior, some guardians will destroy property by chewing or digging holes etc.

Guardian Dog Training:
The basic training for a guardian dog starts with being raised among sheep. The training requires supervision to prevent bad habits from developing and to establish limits of acceptable behavior.

Bonding with sheep:
This is a two-way concern between both the dog and sheep. Sheep accept a puppy more easily if they become acquainted with it in fairly close quarters, but they can also take a long time to accept the dog if it is turned into a large pasture with them. The regular practice is that when a puppy reaches the age of between 6 and 9 months, he is put in a safe enclosure within the sheep area with young lambs as old as 4 months.

Bear in mind the purpose of your dog, he is a guardian of your flock and it is they with whom he has to bond, not you and should never become a pet. This discouragement from bonding with humans helps to reinforce its protective instinct. 

When the sheep and guard dog have formed a relationship if there is any disturbance in the pasture they will run to it, and he will take over.

Whereas you are not making a pet of your guardian dog, you must have a relationship with it so that he can be caught, put on a leash, and walked on the leash when required. If there is no interaction between you and the dog you won't be able to catch it for vaccinations or medical examination, or to hold it back while your sheep are being sheared and so on. The ideal relationship is that the dog should bond with the sheep and be friendly, but not too friendly and comfortable with you. Praise him when he is good and give him a pat every now and then.

It is not a good idea to try to train two puppies at the same time, because they will want to play with each other and disturb the flock in the process. A single puppy will bond with sheep more readily than this way. On the other hand if you have an older, experienced dog, the puppy can learn and be trained by it which is advantageous.

These useful dogs are prepared to put their life on the line to save your sheep, and there is always the chance that they will become the victim, therefore it is better to have a replacement on hand to take over in the case of injury or even death.

Most farmers prefer to have their guardian dogs neutered to avoid problems when the guard dogs or neighboring dogs are ready to be mated. The time when the neutering is best done is when the puppy is 4 months old.

Points to look for in a guardian dog are that they are attentive, bond well with the sheep and stay with them. He should have the appropriate aggressiveness, that is growling, barking and if necessary fighting. He should be defensive and stay between the sheep and the danger. He must display trustworthiness so you are confident that he will not harm the sheep, and he must be reliable, that is, wary of unfamiliar humans, but slow to attack. It is best not to give it too much training because this can interfere with its natural instinct and independent intelligence. It must learn and respond to the commands of "come", "stay", and "no". Basic training involves walking the dog on a leash when necessary and getting it use to being handled.

GUARDIAN DOG BREEDS
Akbash:
This dog has proved itself to b a very effective guardian. In the USA it has been known to ward-off bears and mountain lions.

Anatolian Shepherd:
This dog came originally from Turkey and is among the more aggressive of guardian breeds, even to unfamiliar humans. However, they can be trained to be friendly to visitors after the strangers have been introduced to the dog by its owner. These dogs are known to be extremely possessive of not only livestock, but property and family.

Briards:
These guardian dogs are not effective against large predators such as bears or mountain lions, but they work well where domestic dogs are the primary perpetrators. They are also useful where coyotes or foxes are a problem.

Great Pyrenees:
These dogs are mainly white and have a rough coat. They are heavy-weights weighing between 100 to 125 pounds (45.4 – 56.7 kg). They are very gentle animals and when bonded with sheep at an early age prove to be reliable.

Komondor:
These dogs have long coats of hair, and may need to be groomed to remove burrs from their coat. They are devoted guards, wary of strangers and independent with a very serious character. These dogs work best with pastured sheep rather than with sheep on an open range. As for their independent nature, this must be carefully controlled by a firm, but kind owner.

Kuvaz:
This is also a large animal with its males weighing 100 to 130 pounds (45.4 – 59 kg). This breed is independent and not so easily trained for obedience. The word "no" must be strictly enforced. Once trained it is very protective of his "own" property and will fiercely protect. The females are more alert, whereas the males are more apt to kill predators. They are agile runners and catch, or corner a predator easily. After having been trained they are capable of functioning without supervision. This breed has an emotional need for a certain amount of human company.

Maremma:
These dogs work well with a teamed dog of the same breed. They are independent but obey the single commands learned when they were puppies. They are loyal to the flock and are known to be among the calmest of guardian breeds during the daytime, but with instinctive alertness at night when it is most needed.

Shar Planinetz:
These dogs are similar to the Pyrenees and Maremma breeds, it has a quiet, gentle character.

Tibetan Mastiff:
This breed is loyal to its owner and flock, and is known to defend "his" herd from wolves, and would-be thieves. 



CHAPTER 6
FEEDS AND FEEDING

Good nutrition results in higher levels of fertility and multiple births. It also means a great production of milk and nursing ability. The wool of a well nourished sheep is of a better quality and greater. Nutrition plays an important role in pregnancy and good nutrition leads to less trouble with pregnancies as well as lesser health problems, into the bargain lambs grow more rapidly.

It pays to see that your flock receives good nutrition. If it is under nourished many problems are encountered not just health wise, but abortion, premature lambing, undersized lambs at birth and become easy prey for predators.

A good pasture provides plenty of grass but is not adequate to feed sheep for a full 12 months of the year, therefore you will need to supplement their diet with grain, hay and minerals. 

Feeding time is a very good time to check your flock, you can feel the udders of ewes that are nearing their lambing date, observe their eating habits – which gives you an indication as to the state of their health. If your sheep have been roaming wooded or bushy areas you have the chance to count them to see if any have gone astray or have not been caught up on some branches and such like.

DIGESTION
Most foods are not usable until they are broken down into molecules which means digestion. 

Like other ruminants – that is species such as cows, deer, and goats – they have a four-stomach digestive system. As we mentioned earlier in the book, sheep do not have any upper teeth, instead they have a hard palate to do the job. As part of the digestive process the bottom row of teeth grind feed against the palate. At this stage the food is only lightly chewed and combined with salves that form a small ball, or bolus, of feed. The sheep is then able to swallow the ball which travels down into the rumen which is the first of the four stomachs.

The Rumen:
The rumen is where microorganisms start working on the food to break it down through the process of fermentation. Microorganisms live inside the rumen as well as other bacteria but they are not only beneficial, but an absolute necessity toward the survival of the animal. 

A mature sheep has a rumen capacity of between 5 and 10 gallons (18.0 37.8L) and each gallon (3.8 L) has in the region of 200 trillion bacteria, 4 billion protozoa and millions of yeast and fungi. The good health of a rumen when making a change in the sheep's diet is to make a slow change. This is so that the microorganisms have a chance to get use to the new type of feed.

There are some heavy items such as whole grain or stones that may bypass the rumen and go directly into the second stomach, or reticulum. The grain that slips through the rumen is not fully digested and that is a good idea to feed your sheep cracked grain or whole grains mixed with hay because most of the feed will then get some time to be processed in the rumen. The fermentation that occurs in the rumen produces gas which the animals must pass by belching. There are times when an excessive accumulation of gas and/or foamy substances build up in the rumen causing bloat which must be dealt with immediately.

Bloat:
Bloat is very serious in sheep as well as cows and can be fatal in just a few hours. The cause of bloat is too much of almost any feed, but is most commonly caused by gorging on lush pasture. Legume pastures, such as those of very leafy alfalfa and clover are far more dangerous than grass pastures, which is another good reason to have a mixed pasture of both grasses and legumes. 

There is the danger that when sheep are changed from sparse to lush pastures they will be greedy and gorge themselves, however, if they have been given a feeding of dry hay before turning out on the new pasture the problem has less of a chance to be bothersome. Sheep rarely suffer from bloat when they are fed dry hay before going out to pasture. This is because the coarse feed stimulates the belching mechanism with keeping the greed feed from making a compact mass. This subject with be dealt with in more details on page 71.

The other stomachs:
From the rumen, the well fermented feed then passes on to the reticulum and then to the third and fourth stomachs. The abomasums is often referred to as the true stomach because it functions in a way similar to that of single stomached animals - the same applies to us.  Digestion in this region is primarily a chemical process in which the enzyme break down the feed as it passes through. Animals having the four stomach system allow ruminants to eat, and digest feeds that other animals can't. It enables them to digest cellulose which accounts for 50% of the organic carbon on earth, and being able to digest cellulose allows sheep to receive the maximum benefit from all the amino acids found in their feed.

Last phase of digestion:
The cecum and intestines are the final places the feed pass through. The job of these organs is to provide the last chance for breakdown to occur through both chemical and biological processes.

The small intestine is the place where most transfers occur. Nutrients, which have now been converted into their elemental and molecular form switch from the digestive track to the bloodstream. The veins, arteries and capillaries then disperse the nutrients to other parts of the body where they are needed, thereby feeding organs, muscles and tissues. The intestinal system plays a major role. It also controls the disposal of waste products that the body cannot use.

The Cud:
All ruminants, cows and sheep etc., are animals that chew their cud. A cud is a ball of food, or bolus, that is, partially digested material regurgitated into the mouth from the rumen.

It is not like the first chewing which is quick. The cud is chewed very thoroughly and then reswallowed. It serves two purposes; it allows additional mechanical grinding, and provides a continuous source of large amounts of saliva for the rumen, all of which help to maintain a healthy environment for the microorganisms. Sheep chew their cud on and off during the day and it takes around 6 hours to do this.

DIGESTION SYSTEM OF LAMBS
When a lamb is born it's rumen is not fully developed and therefore cannot digest cellulose, when it reaches 4 months its development is complete. 

It is important to understand that lambs should not be weaned until their rumen is fairly well developed, which is around 45 days after birth. The danger of lambs weaning before this time is that their growth is stunted and some die.

Straight after a lamb is born it is capable of absorbing antibodies that will protect it straight from its mother's milk directly into its bloodstream by the large intestine. Because the lamb's rumen is not yet working the antibodies are not yet broken down there. Antibodies are usually too large to be absorbed through the intestines and to compensate for this, Allah has provided the lamb with a condition whereby the antibodies can pass through the wall of the intestine into the bloodstream, and as it were jump-start the lamb's immune system. The first milk a ewe produces for her lamb is different from the rest of the milk it produces, this milk is called colostrum and contains extra large doses of antibodies.

Importance of Colostrum:
Needless to say, you have understood that the first milk of a mother sheep is vitally important. This milk should be received by the lamb as soon after birth as possible, this is because the intestinal lining begins to shut down from the moment of birth until it can no longer allow the passage of antibodies. This "shutting down" process takes anywhere from 16 to 48 hours.

Lambs can survive without the nutrition contained in the colostrum, however, the problem is that because they did not receive the colostrum they are very prone to diseases that would normally protect a lamb for the first vital weeks of its life before its own immunity system can start to produce them. When your ewes were vaccinated before the lambing season, the immunity they received is also passed onto their lamb through the colostrum. 

Sometimes it is not possible for a lamb to receive it's mother's colostrum on account of death, disease or rejection. When such circumstances prevail, milk another ewe that has a plentiful supply of first milk, and use it for the unfortunate lamb. It is a good idea to freeze some colostrum and have it on hand for emergencies. If sheep colostrum is unavailable, then substitute with that of either a cow or goat. 

There are commercial preparations available that can be purchased before lambing as a standby. These milk-whey antibody products transfer a certain amount of immunity to the newborn when mixed with a milk replacer or a diluted can of milk or cow milk for the first day. Most likely your vet (veterinarian) will have a supply on hand. 

The advantage of using colostrum milk produced on your own farm is that it has antibodies that are relevant to your farm and offer better protection for the lamb.

Emergency formula for a newborn lamb:
There is absolutely no doubt that there is no satisfactory substitute for colostrum. If you are desperate, a lamb can be fed with the following for the first 2 days of its life, rather than starting out with milk replacers.

26 ounces (769 ml) milk – prepared by mixing half evaporated, condensed milk with half water.
1 tablespoon (14.8 ml) castor oil – or cod liver oil
1 tablespoon (14.8 ml) glucose or sugar
1 beaten egg yolk.

Mix the ingredients well and give about 2 ounces (59.1 ml) at a time for the first day, allowing 2 to 3 hours between feeds. You will need a lamb bottle for this. As the lamb grows the nipples on the bottle should be made larger.

On the second day, increase the feedings of the formula to 3 ounces (88.7 ml) at a time. However, if the lamb is large or hungry you can give it 4 ounces (118.3 ml) 2 to 3 hours apart

On the third day, the formula can be made without the egg yolk and sugar and the oil can be reduced to 1 teaspoon (4.9 ml) per 16 ounces (769 ml) of milk.

After the third day, you can gradually change to lamb milk replacer, however, do not be tempted to use a milk replacer formulated for calves because it is too low in fat and protein. You vet can order a lamb milk replacer for you to have on hand. Goat's milk is also good for lambs, if you have some goats then you won't need to use a milk replacer.

How to know if your lamb is getting milk:
When a lamb nurses successfully, its tail wags. If the tail is motionless, there may be a problem. If a lamb constantly cries this may be another indication that something is not right, but this is not always the case, some lambs will starve to death without making a sound. Another sign is to check the udder of the sheep, if it is damp, then the lamb has been fed.

During the first week, milk the ewe a little to make sure she is producing milk, this way you can be certain that there is enough milk to satisfy your lamb. One of the other signs that a lamb is getting its feed of milk is that it will have puffed-up belly, whereas one that is not getting sufficient milk will have a sunken belly and its skin piles into folds.

There is the possibility that a ewe will start producing milk only to dry up after a day or two, so do not assume because you checked a ewe once that her milk is there everyday. 

A well fed ewe should have sufficient milk. When a young ewe does not have sufficient milk supplement it with a couple of 2 ounce (59.1 ml) bottle feedings for the first 2 days, the best solution is to milk another ewe and give it to the unfortunate lamb.

Sometimes, insufficient milk can be resolved by injections of oxytocin. If the quantity is still insufficient for the lamb then supplement it with a couple of 4 ounce (118.3 ml) feedings of lamb milk replacer during the first week, then increase the amount to about 8 ounces (236.6 ml) feeding when the lamb is 2 weeks old.

Bottle Feeding:
A lamb that needs to be bottle fed needs more care and attention. Be careful not to overfeed because it can cause illness, which easily occurs with bottle fed babies. 

Overfeeding can cause diarrhea (sours) and this can be deadly. Bottle fed lambs are more prone to bacterial and viral infections therefore cleanliness is critical to the lamb's survival. Disguard a partly used bottle. Keep milk refrigerated, and warm it at feeding time. Make sure the milk is just warm and not hot. If the milk is hot the lamb will burn its mouth and this will cause a problem. 

IMPORTANCE OF NUTRIENTS
Nutrients perform three basic functions. They support structural developments such as strengthening bones, tendons, muscles, skin and wool. They provide energy, and regulate body functions.

Proteins, vitamins, minerals, water carbohydrates and fats are all types of nutrients and help with more than one of these basic functions.

Protein:
Proteins are the portion of the ration containing amino acids, and are required by the body for cell formation, development, and maintenance, especially for muscle and blood cells. Proteins contain thousands or atoms whereas carbohydrate contain very few. 

Ruminants can easily obtain all the necessary amino acids from plants. Most sheep have a higher requirement of protein than other species of livestock this is because protein is a major constituent in the development of wool.

Protein is higher in legumes than in grasses and can be supplemented by feeding legume hay or cubes, field peas, soybeans, sunflower seeds which provide really high amounts of energy, brewer's yeast or grain. Caution: Some commercial protein supplements contain animal proteins such as blood meal. They are less expensive than plant supplements but may contribute to disease transmission. It is feared that this type of protein supplement may have contributed to the deadly "mad cow" disease in Europe.

Vitamins and Minerals:
Vitamins and minerals are regulators of a sheep's diet. They, and some forms of protein and enzymes are all critical to regulation. There is usually an adequate supply of vitamins in good green fields. Minerals can be supplemented with a trace mineral mix or block. There are several varieties of blocks available, make sure the one you buy is for sheep, because those prepared for cattle and horses may contain too much copper.

Although vitamins and minerals are only necessary in very small quantities, if there is a shortage of either in a sheep's diet then you have a problem on your hands. Deficiencies of vitamins cause diseases such as rickets and anemia. Don't be tempted to overdose because they are toxic. Deficiencies and excesses are usually found in the imbalance of soil minerals; this varies from one area to another. It is a good idea to get your soil tested to know what you have.

Water:
It is not usual to think of water as being a nutrient, but it is one of importance. Animals have been known to live for up to 10 days without food as long as they have water, if they do not have water they may not survive for 2 days. Water has several benefits for sheep, it keeps them cool in hot weather, assists transportation of nutrients throughout the body, carries waste out of the body, it is necessary for chemical reactions that take place throughout the body and keeps cells hydrated and healthy.

Water must be clean with an ideal temperature of about 50 degrees Fahrenheit (64 degrees C). Very moist feeds reduce the need of a sheep's water intake where as dry feeds increase the need for more water, remember, a hot summer pasture has very little moisture in it.

Sheep cope with heat by losing moisture through their skin and this increases their need for water. Shade helps reduce moisture loss, but all the same sheep need fresh, clean water. With regard to shade, shaded areas will be sought by sheep during the summer months, and because of this the areas are overused and this contributes of parasite problems.

Ewes nursing their lambs also need extra water to ensure good milk production. On average mature sheep drink between 1 and 2.5 gallons (3.8 – 9.5L) of water a day, however, as a pregnant sheep nears the end of her term, ewes as well as lactating ewes will be drinking amounts of water at the higher end of the scale.

Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are sugars, starches and fiber and their proportions in an individual plant vary depending on the plant's age, environmental factors and variety. They constitute three-fourths of the dry matter in plants, consequently they are one of the most significant nutrients in a sheep's diet. Sugars make up a higher proportion of carbohydrates in young plants whereas fiber makes up a higher proportion in older plants.

Fats:
Fats and fatty substances are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, however the proportions are very different. Fat is an essential nutrient, more so for young and growing lambs. Fat provides almost twice as much energy as carbohydrates and helps an animal to control the temperature of its body.

FEEDING PRACTICES
The sheep's stage of life should be taken into account during feeding. Quality and quantity of feed supplements do not remain the same. Lambs and young animals need more and higher quality feed according to their size than mature animals. Lactating ewes need more than dry ewes, and during the breeding season rams require more than they would do out of season.

Feeding Behavior:
It is normal for sheep to eat during the hours of daylight. They begin around dawn and if out to pasture they will graze on and off throughout the day until evening. They eat at night only if there is no choice, but won't eat as much. The reason for this is that sheep must have time during the day to rest and chew cud, so the feed they eat must have sufficient nutrients to meet all their needs during the day.

If you feed a pregnant ewe on poor quality hay during the winter when there are fewer hours of daylight their nutritional need will not be met, and you will have to supplement their feed with grain.

Because sheep are social animals they eat better when they are in a group than when they are by themselves. If you are just starting your flock, don't buy just one, buy two or three lambs, however, you should be aware that once they have bonded together, they won't mix with other flocks very well. If you buy two flocks of sheep, don't be surprised when you find them staking out a "home territory", even if they are living in the same pasture.

Like cows, sheep avoid grazing near their own feces, but are not so particular to graze around the feces of other species.

Sheep prefer higher ground to lower ground and do well grazing amongst other species such as cows, horses and goats. There are many benefits to be had from such an arrangement. Multi-species grazing on the same land reduces parasites, there are fewer predation problems, and lambs grow more rapidly when several species are grazed together. 

Changes in feed:
Provided changes in feed are made gradually a sheep can adjust to a large variety of feed. A sudden change in ration, such as sudden access to food, can cause death this is because the microorganisms in the rumen cannot adapt quickly. It takes its time to become accustomed to a new diet.

Abrupt change of any kind will disturb the rumen, not only bloat but can cause death through acidosis, impacted rumen, and enterotoxemia (more details in chapter 8). Abrupt changes can cause other problems because sudden changes interfere with the synthesis of vitamins A and B. Vitamin A plays an important role as an anti-infection vitamin, whereas vitamin B, if not ingested sufficiently results in lack of appetite, and weakness.

When making changes to their feed it is a good idea to formulate a feed program no quicker than 10% per day. If you propose bringing new sheep home, don't forget to ask the seller what feed he/she has been giving them and slowly adjust them to your program.

Feeding Program:
If you have good quality hay, the following general guidelines are suitable, but if our hay is poor quality, you may need to add a little more grain than those given below.

Another consideration to take into account is if the reproductive cycle is timed to the peak of high quality grass production in the spring, when this is the case you will only need just a little, if any, supplemental grain for good lactation. However, if your ewes are going to lamb in the winter, you will definitely want to follow the pre-breeding guidelines.

First, seventeen days before introducing a ram to the ewes, provide each ewe with half a pound (0.23 kg) of grain. Start gradually for the first few days. This is called flushing, and it increases ovulation.

Second, a week before the ram is introduced to the ewes he should start to receive up to half a pound (0.23 kg) of grain as well, but remember to start gradually and continue throughout the breeding season. Once the breeding season is over, start to reduce his intake of grain until he is back on just hay or pasture.

Third, continue to give the ewes their half a pound (0.23 kg) for around 4 weeks after mating and then taper it off gradually. 

Fourth, feeding approximately one tenth of a pound (0.05 kg) of light grain to a ewe per day is alright until the last 5 weeks of pregnancy.

Fifth, once the ewe has reached the last 5 weeks of her pregnancy, she should have an increase in nutrition to prevent pregnancy disease. Gradually work up to half a pound (0.23 kg) or more per ewe.

Sixth, lactation is usually between 6 and 8 weeks. Ewes with just one lamb should be given about 1 pound (0.5kg) of grain per day, whereas ewes with twins should have 1.5 to 2 pounds (0.7 to 1 kg) plus hay for each. Then gradually stop as the lambs eat more grain and hay in the creep feeder (a simple construction mentioned before that is only large enough to let the lambs go in to feed).

Seventh, The gradual stopping of the grain should start 10 days before you plan to wean, but don't forget to leave feed in the creep-feeder for the lambs.

Regular feeding schedule:
It is important to make sure the size of a sheep's ration do not fluctuate, so measure the quantity of grain given each day by simply using the same container/s for each feeding. As we mentioned earlier sheep that are fed in the evening should be fed at least an hour before nightfall.

It is preferable to establish a regular feeding time for the sheep, when this is established the sheep are less likely to eat their food too quickly and choke. If a sheep's feeding time is irregular it becomes hard on their stomachs as well as their system.

The expected time for feeding is important for all sheep, and when it comes to pregnant ewes it is more important. A recent study has shown that regular feeding of pregnant ewes around 10.00 am helped to reduce lambing between night and early dawn!

TYPES OF FEED
Primary feed source should be your pasture, however, grains, hay and a variety of vegetables are good as well, but never forget to introduce a new feed slowly. Remember, a sheep has four stomachs, and acute indigestion is not a minor illness for sheep

Grain:
Whole grain is better for sheep than crushed grain. Rolled oats, for example, have a lot of dust that can make the sheep sneeze a lot, and if the ewe is pregnant this can lead to a prolapse, as well as breathing problems in lambs. In unprocessed wheat there is a valuable germ, or embryo that is found in the grain kernel, this wheat germ is rich in vitamin E and is efficient in protecting ewes and lambs from a disease called white muscle disease.

Whereas a diet consisting mainly of pelleted or finely ground feed causes the inflammation of the rumen, whole grains, and hay promote a healthy rumen.  

Grain Mixtures:
The following are recipes for supplemental feed for sheep.
1. Mix 50 lb (23 kg) of shelled corn, 10 lb (9 kg) of oats, 20 lb (9 kg) wheat bran, and 10 lb (4.5 kg) of linseed meal.
2. Mix 75 lb (34 kg) shelled corn, 10 lb (4.5 kg) of cottonseed hulls, 14 lb (7 kg) of soybean meal, and 1 lb (0.5 kg) of molasses.

Hay:
When it comes to storing hay, store it in the darkest part of your barn, or under a tarpaulin cover, this way you will preserve the vitamin A content, which is depleted when exposed to sunlight. 

If hay is exposed to rain it can result in moldy hay, and this can cause a ewe to abort. 

Needless to say, if the quality of hay is poor, then you will have to add more supplements. If there are lots of heavy stems in your hay, then the sheep will eat less. When there are a lot of heavy stems, it is a good idea to save them for bedding.

If for whatever reason you buy both good quality and poor quality hay, give the best quality to your pregnant ewes – in late pregnancy good quality hay is a must because as the lamb grows inside her, the ewe's stomach becomes crowded and there is little room for bulky low nutritional feed.

Alfalfa Hay:
Alfalfa is a superior hay because it contains nine vitamins. It contains vitamin A which during winter your pasture grass lacks. The greener the hay, the higher the vitamin content.

This type of hay is also high in calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron and potassium.

An interesting point is that the name "Alfalfa" is derived from an Arabic word.

Treats:
There is a wide variety of fruit and vegetables that sheep really enjoy. Earlier on we mentioned windfall apples are a favorite with sheep, but always bear in mind, their seeds can be toxic, and should therefore be given sparingly, as with any change in a sheep's diet, they must be introduced slowly. Apples set aside for winter use are welcomed by sheep. Their preference is for overripe, spoiled apples. 

Molasses is another treat and contains a good source of minerals. It is, in small quantities, valuable to ewes in the late stage of pregnancy because the sugars enter the blood stream quickly, do not be tempted to give them too much, as this too can cause a problem, namely toxemia. It's not only ewes that love molasses!.

If you live near a green grocery shop, ask the manager to set aside any vegetable/fruit produce that is no longer marketable, they will be glad to get rid of it. Sheep love, lettuce, cabbage, broccoli etc., and fruit – this is another good reason for keeping your sheep well penned in, so that they do not invade and demolish a neighbor's or even your own vegetable garden! These unmarketable veggies should be fed sparingly and in measured quantities. Caution: potatoes that have sprouted can be toxic to sheep and also cause birth defects. If you have a garden, why not grow carrots, turnips, or beets because these veggies provide good roughage for sheep.

Salt and minerals:
To maintain a sheep's good health, salt is necessary throughout the entire year. If sheep are deprived of salt for long periods and then given it they may overindulge, like kids in a candy store, and this can result in salt poisoning. If a sheep is suffering from salt poisoning, they become nervous, tremble, their legs become weak, and needless to say are thirsty. To overcome this problem, give the sheep plenty of fresh water.

The best kind of salt is mineralized salt that contains selenium, when you go to buy your salt, remember there is salt specifically for sheep and salt specifically for other livestock. Make sure you get the right one because other salts contain toxic levels of copper that will harm sheep.

Poisonous plants:
There are some plants that are poisons to both sheep and humans, so it is best to find out what plants grow in your part of the world that are toxic. Your vet will be able to help you name and identify such plants.

Some plants only become toxic at certain times of the year, or when they reach a certain growth, on the other hand there are those that are only mildly toxic and only cause a problem when a lot has been ingested. Be sure to check your pastures to see if any poisonous plants have invaded your sheep's grazing area and dig them up, do not be too late in getting rid of these plants – remember they will go to seed and you will have more of a problem on your hands.

If you suspect a sheep is suffering from plant poisoning call your vet immediately. Remove the sheep from the flock, and keep it out of the sun and cold, feed it with a normal, safe food.

Sheep do not enjoy eating these plants, but, if they are hungry and better food is not available, they will eat them. The same applies to water, if they are not given sufficient water, when it does become available to them they will drink a lot and then devour almost anything.
Also, when there is a shortage of grass, perhaps on account of drought, or overgrazing, sheep will eat plants they would otherwise avoid, so know what is in your pasture.

The following is a list of plants found in the west, some may not grow in your part of the world, and as we mentioned before, ask around and find out which are poisonous and what they look like.

POISONOUS PLANTS*

Plant Name or Seed       Effect
Azalea                              Toxicity
Acorns                              Kidney damage
Apple seeds                      Poisonous, especially green seeds
Chokeberry                       Poisonous, especially in spring
Death camas                     Poisonous, especially in spring
Horsebrush                        Poisonous, especially in spring
Halogeton                          Poisonous
Hemlock                            Poisonous to sheep and humans
Lupine                                Poisonous, especially summer/autumn
Loco                                   Poisonous
Larkspur                             Poisonous during some seasons
                                          This is dangerous because sheep like it
Mountain laurel                  Toxicity
Milkweed                           Poisonous, especially in summer
Nightshade                        Poisonous to both sheep and humans
Potato sprouts                   Birth defects
Red maple leaves             Kidney damage
Rhododendron                  Toxicity
Skunk cabbage                 Birth defects
Tansy ragwort                   Poisonous
Water hemlock                  Poisonous, but not tasty
Wild tobacco stalks           Birth defects
Yew needles                     Extreme toxicity
 *  Check to see if there additional plants growing in your area that are poisonous.

Toxic substances and waste:
Always store your chemicals and cleaning supplies where your sheep cannot get at them, and do not forget the containers can also be toxic so dispose of them properly.

There are several things that can be found on a farm that have been just left lying around that can harm your sheep such as:

* Waste motor oil, disposed of carelessly
* Old crankcase oil – it has a high lead content
* Old radiator coolant or antifreeze – sheep like this, it is sweet to them!
* Orchard spray that has dripped from the tree onto the grass
* Weed spray, sheep can be attracted to this as it has a salty taste.
* Old pesticide or herbicide containers filled with rainwater.
* Most sheep insecticidal dips and sprays.
* Old car batteries, sheep like the salty taste of led oxide.
* Salt, a sheep's need has already been discussed, a large intake of salt can lead to salt poisoning.
* Empty lead buckets filled with rainwater – rainwater is soft and dissolves lead, and lead laced rainwater can kill a sheep.
*Commercial fertilizer is also very harmful. When fertilizing be careful not to spill it where the sheep can eat it. Store the bags away from the sheep, because they can nibble away at the bags, empty or full! If you use commercial fertilizer, the area must have been subjected to several irrigations or rainfall and may still not be safe unless the pasture grass is supplemented with grain and hay. Symptoms of poisoning due to fertilizer toxicity are weakness, rapid open mouthed breathing and convulsions. When this is the case a quick homemade recipe of 1 cup of vinegar (236.6 ml) per sheep as a drench can be used, but it is best to call your vet for a more effective treatment. 

SHEEP FEEDING CHART

FOR GROWING SHEEP
LIVE WEIGHT IN POUNDS     50 (22.72k)   75 (34.09k)     100 (45.45k)   125 (56.81k)

Dry matter lb                            2.2 (1.00k)     3.5 (1.59k)      4.0 (1.82k)     4.6 (2.09k)

Crude protein %                      12.0                11.0                9.5                 8.0

Crude protein lb                    0.26(0.118k)   0.39 (0.177k)    0.38 (0.172k)   37(0.168k)

*TDN %                                   55                   58                   62                     62

TDN lb                                 1.21(0.55k)      2.03(0.922k)     2.48 (1.127k)  2.85(1.295k)

Energy Mcal                        1.14                  1.18                 1.27                 1.27

Calcium %                           0.23                  0.21                 0.19                 0.18

Phosphorus %                    0.21                  0.18                 0.18                 0.16

*TDN – total daily nutrients

CAUTION: Do not feed sheep a formula or mineral mixtures that are not specifically recommended for sheep. The amounts of some trace minerals, i.e. copper, that are in the feed for other classes of livestock may be toxic to sheep.




CHAPTER 7
HEALTH AND DISEASE

This chapter deals with the health of your flock and the diseases you may or may not encounter. Bear in mind, that as with a human health care book many unpleasant diseases are listed, you may or may not encounter some or, even none at all, the same can be applied to a sheep.

Disease is unpleasant, but a good shepherd is a knowledgeable, caring shepherd and therefore reads up about illnesses that might a affect his/her flock and has a good idea how to detect when an animal is not behaving normally and is able to deal with their sheep when they become ill. InshaAllah, Allah will bless and protect you and your sheep.

Ask your neighboring farmers about the vets in your area, and keep his telephone number where it can be easily found for emergencies. Look for one who understands you are a beginner and is willing to give you that little bit extra in order to get you going. 

Early detection of an illness is the key to successful treatment with greater chance of a swift recovery.

When you bring your sheep home for the first time get your vet to check them out at intervals, you will gain knowledge and feel more relaxed. Establish a good relationship with your vet, generally speaking they went into this line of professional because of their love of animals and won't be reluctant to come to your assistance in the early hours of the morning in cases of emergencies.

One of the most important things is getting your vet to help you to decide on a vaccination program, and at the same time don't forget to ask about poisonous plants or soil deficiencies in your area.

GOOD HEALTH PROCEDURES
Many factors can contribute to health problems. It could be due to lack of exercise, unhygienic living quarters, moldy or spoiled feed, overfeeding, toxicity, parasite, stress brought on by new surroundings, weather, predators, transportation and so on, diseases transmitted by other sheep, infections after lambing, abrupt change in feed or insufficient water.

1. First and foremost is the need for good sanitation. Clean bedding in barns, fresh clean water and feed. Also clean your utensils such as needles, and nursing bottles thoroughly, these elementary practices go a long way to keeping your flock healthy. Another aspect of good sanitation is storage and disposal of any cleaning product, herbicides, pesticides, medicines and anything else that is poisonous including their wrappers, and containers.

2. Importance of nutrition. Adequate nutrition is essential. Animals that receive high levels of nutrients have a much stronger immune system.

3. Housing and space. If you decide to keep your sheep in buildings, good ventilation is essential to eliminate the build up of ammonia. However, the sheep should not be subjected to drafts even though they have a warm coat! If you keep them outside, make sure they have somewhere to shelter out of rain, and wind. Make sure your flock are not forced to eat too close to the soil, or too close to their own manure.

4. Healthy animals. A healthy animal is one that is bright and attentive with a good appetite. Their manure should be solid and pelleted. As for their eyes and ears they should be alert to their environment and should be able to keep up with the rest of the flock.

5. Additions to the flock. Always make sure the animals you are interested in purchasing are healthy, if they do not appear to be 100% healthy, don't buy and look somewhere else. In the west sheep farmers keep records of the health of their sheep, ask to see these records, if they say they don't have them, forgotten them or any excuse avoid buying from them. If you decided to buy an entire flock, seek the advice of your vet and get him to examine them. If the seller raises an objection, find another flock. This way you can save yourself a lot of money. Sheep that are sold in a sale barn are most often not a good buy, the animals up for sale usually have a problem. As for a middleman, who purchases animals to resell, ask for a written guarantee.

If you are buying a ewe that has already been bred, check her lambing record, ask if her birthing was easy, needed assistance, did she have a prolapse uterus etc. a ewe that had a prolapsed uterus is good for butchering. As for a ram that suffers from foot rot, or lambs that have had scours – be wary, they are not what you want in your flock, and are good for butchering.

6. Quarantine: All new animals should be kept in quarantine away from your existing flock for 14 days, even if you bought them from someone you know and have a feeling that they are in good health because the sheep may be in the process of developing an illness unknown to the seller, breaking this rule can cost a lot of money. This way you not only protect your existing flock but you are given the chance to look for signs of illness.

7. The arrival of new sheep: As soon as you get them home, deworm them and again exactly 14 days later. If this is your first time, ask the seller to give you a hand and learn how it is done. On the same day trim their hooves if necessary and spray against foot rot – 10% zinc sulfate in water is very effective and does not stain wool. Once again ask the seller to give you a helping hand. Vaccination is another consideration, check to see if they have already been vaccinated or need vaccination or a booster, the seller should have records.

8. Isolation of sheep that appear ill: If you suspect that a sheep is not as well as it should be, do not take chances. Isolate it so you can observe it, this way if the sheep is ill, you can prevent the illness spreading throughout your flock. Treating an animal that is sick in a controlled environment is far easier than out in a pasture.

9. Vaccination: consult with your vet as to when, and what type of vaccinations are required.

10. Avoid introducing animals from outside your flock, to your flock. This lessens the risk of disease.

11. Medications: Be careful to give the correct medicine and the right quantity.

MEDICAL EMERGENCY SUPPLY
Prepare yourself for all emergencies. You should keep these medications ready for use:
Bloat medication
Antibiotics
Anthelmintics – these are worm medications
Propylene glycol used in pregnancy toxemia
Calcium phosphate for use in milk fever
Calcium gluconate for subcutaneous injection in milk fever
Glycerin
Disinfectants, such as iodine, and hydrogen peroxide
Mineral oil for constipation
Dextrose solution
Zinc sulfate
Uterine boluses
Prolapse retainer, sometimes called a ewe-bearing retainer
Clean or sterile equipment such as syringes and needles.

Ask your vet for further recommendations relevant to your area and for advice on antibiotics.

THE IMPORTANCE OF RECOGNIZING A SICK ANIMAL
First you must know your sheep and their normal behavior, not just as a flock but individually. If you notice something that is unusual in your sheep do not let it slip in the hope that it is nothing to be concerned about. Signs of abnormality are loss of appetite, indifference to come to eat its food, or being a loner. A sheep that lies down most of the time when others are active could be cause for concern. Look for any weakness such as staggering, labored or fast breathing, change in bowel movements, condition of wool or running a temperature of 104 degrees Fahrenheit, (40 degrees C) is a matter for concern.

Normal temperature of sheep: The normal temperature for sheep – except during very hot weather – ranges from 100.9 to 103.0 degrees Fahrenheit (38.3 – 39.4 degrees Celsius). Buy a veterinary rectal thermometer, because it has either a ring or a hole at the out end to enable you to tie a piece of string for easy removal.

Collecting urine samples: You may need to collect a urine sample, when this occurs, try a plastic cup fastened to the handle of a shepherd's crook. If you have difficult getting the sheep to urinate, try holding its nostrils closed for a moment, most often, the stress will cause the sheep to urinate!

Homeopathic (Natural, Herbal) Medicines: This form of medication is only just catching on in the west although its beneficial properties  for animal and humans have been known in the east for centuries. Each type of medicine has its place, and there are some illnesses that respond better to "western" medicine. However, prolonged used of antibiotics has its draw backs and a homeopathic sulfur could provide you with an alternative. Homeopathic medicines are well worth studying as any living in the far-east will confirm.

It has been reported that a mixture of garlic and cayenne pepper added to lamb's feed takes care of worms. Others feed diatomaceous earth and have experienced a reduced worm count, these reports are well worth looking into.

NATURAL DEFENSE SYSTEM
The skin, wool and hooves of a sheep have a good success rate in keeping most organisms away. You can also wash away the invaders.

Not only does bleeding, saliva, tears but also urine helps to flush invading organisms out of a sheep's system. Enzymes, which are a natural chemical, occur in body fluids and they too help combat invaders. You may have seen a wounded animal licking its wound, what occurs is two-fold, the licking removes pathogens – disease causing organisms – while the saliva helps to disinfect the area.

Constant exposure to organisms over a period of time, such as bacteria, viruses, and worms living in the environment result in the development of a degree of immunity to the organism, especially in mature sheep, so that when a "bug" manages to break through the previous defenses, the immune system is triggered.

When an invader makes an attempt, the white blood cells are the first to respond with an immediate attack. What occurs is that they fight the invader by mounting an inflammatory response, which is why redness, swelling and heat around a wound happen quickly after an injury.

White blood cells cope well in situations such as skin abrasion and take care of the problem. However, if a virus or bacteria manages to make headway, the white blood cells cannot always fight back effectively. 

Strong, healthy animals have strong, healthy immune systems. Their bodies take care of almost all potential problems, but occasionally, even antibodies are not enough to overcome an invading organism and at this point medical treatment is the order of the day.

UNERLYING CAUSES OF ILLNESS
There are three causes of illness and fall under the categories of chemical, biological and physical. Treatment for these illnesses is covered in a later chapter.

Chemicals include toxins and are found in pesticides, fertilizers, cleaning products and batteries. Chemicals cause poisoning. Some chemicals are also biological such as poisonous plants.

Biological causes are the most common and include parasites, bacteria, viruses, fungi and yeast.

As for physical causes they, except for hypothermia, rarely contribute to the death of an animal but can be aggravated through situations in which chemical or biological problems are involved because they cause an animal stress and weaken its immune system. Stress is  brought about by environmental conditions such as a drafty barn, improper diet, poor sanitation, handling etc.

Biological organisms:
A biological organism that causes disease is called "pathogen". Most diseases such as pneumonia, and scours are caused by bacteria or viruses. Not all bacteria are harmful, some are important to good health, but this is not the case with most. Bacteria is usually treated with antibiotics, however, some bacteria are resistant to certain antibiotics and won't work against a particular illness. Scientific study has revealed that in the case of humans, a lot of the antibiotic resistance we come across today stems directly from the improper use of antibiotics in animal agriculture when animals are fed antibiotics indiscriminately and farmers do not follow the withdrawal times

Viruses do not respond to antibiotics at all. The good news is that sheep are more resistant than other livestock to bacterial and virus diseases.

Yeasts and fungi do not very often cause a shepherd problems, however, they can cause some skin problems, respiratory infections, and the infection in a ewe's udder called mastitis. Both yeast and fungi infections are often brought about by the extensive use of antibiotics. 
  
IDENTIFICATION OF PARASITES
The most common problem a shepherd encounters is that of internal and external parasites. 

Whereas sheep are more resistant to bacterial and virus diseases they are more prone to parasites. Parasites affect all ages of sheep but are most active in lambs and young ewes and can cause death.

A parasite is an organism that gets its food and/or shelter from another organism. Most are relatively benign, and are just a nuisance, whereas others such as intestinal worms may cause serious illness and death. When sheep are affected by parasites they become weak and run-down, and very often sick and prone to a secondary bacterial or viral disease.

Parasites can attack most parts of a sheep's body, so remember to keep your pastures clean to avoid severe parasitic infections. The breed "Gulf Coast Natives" is known for its high tolerance to parasites.

Internal parasites:
When an animal is affected with internal parasites the sheep becomes under nourished, and this complicates matters, because it is then that they become more vulnerable to other parasites. Death from parasites occurs, for the most part, in lambs, yearlings and very old sheep or those that are not fed adequately. Internal parasites reduce productivity, they cause anemia, wool to break and progressive weakness which can lead to death.

Worms are the worst offenders, they are the predominant internal parasite in sheep and in the west there are eleven species that cause a shepherd problems. These worms live not only in the true stomach, but also the small and large intestines, heart and lungs. 

The most common worm in the west is the roundworm that inhabits the digestive system. In parts of the world with high rainfall, a large stomach worm is problematic for sheep named Haemonchus contortus. In parts of the world with a drier climate, a brown stomach worm called Ostertagia circumfecta causes problems. Roundworms feed on blood and bodily fluids found in the stomach lining, this causes the animal anemia and blood loss. If an animal has a heavy infestation, blood loss can quickly become a serious problem.

Lambs are far less tolerant to worm infestation. The amount of worms a mature sheep can cope with can kill a lamb quite quickly, but you may not notice it is in trouble because it does not look thin. One of the effective ways to protect your lambs for infestation when they are out in the pasture is to feed them in what is called "forward creep-grazing", this means that the lambs are grazed in clean pastures before the ewes are put in it and an additional facility of a creep feeder, which is a construction only large enough to let a lamb get in – mum stays outside – it is there that lambs can be fed in a trough with  additional clean food. 

Identification of worm infestations:
Signs to look for, treatment is covered in a later chapter:
Anemia is usually the first sign that a sheep has been infected by roundworm, though it is not always easily detectable. When an animal becomes anemic it shows up as a very pale, grayish color in the inner, lower eyelids and gums that should normally be a fairly bright pink. The sheep becomes listless, has pale mucous membranes and the condition of its body deteriorates. It is important to get the animal dewormed otherwise it might die.

Scours is diarrhea, and is brought about by the attack of small brownish stomach worms. Immediate treatment is a necessity.

Potbelly when an animal that looks thin develops a great big fat belly, it has a problem called potbelly. Potbelly can be caused by liver flukes.       

Wool break if a sheep's wool begins falling out at the roots or breaking off just above the roots, then it has "wool break". However, there are some breeds of sheep that shed their wool in spring and some breeds that are subject to heavy rainfall lose their wool along the backbone.

Bottle jaw is a visible swelling under the jaw. If a sheep develops this swelling, you must consider it as the final warning that the sheep has worms in such quantity that they are severe enough to cause death. Bottle jaw can be caused by liver flukes

Less common internal parasites:
Lungworms are mostly found in low lying or wet pasture. They inhabit the air passages of a sheep and cause coughing, rapid breathing and sometimes there is a discharge from the nose. If a ewe is pregnant, the coughing can bring about a prolapse. The small lungworm, sometimes called "hair lungworm", can cause pneumonia and bronchitis. 

Lungworms live in areas where snails can be found, so keep your animals away from ponds or wet areas. Slugs and snails act as hosts for lungworms, that is, the lungworm spends part of its life cycle living in another creature, so if you are buying for a low-lying area get the animals you are considering buying checked.

Tapeworms these cause damage to the intestines. Tapeworms are one of the lesser varieties to bother sheep and can be seen in sheep droppings and that can be alarming. A moderate level of tapeworm infections causes little damage to adult animals, but can seriously slow down the growth of lambs.

Liver flukes are hosted by snails or slugs. They too are found in wet, marshy areas, ponds, ditches or swamp lands. If your farm has these types of areas it is best to fence them off to prevent the sheep from having access. There are chemicals that will destroy snails but most contain chemicals containing copper sulfate which is poisonous to sheep. 

Coccidiosis, this is a microscopic protozoa parasite that is present in most flocks but rarely cause problems. The symptoms of this problem are diarrhea, diarrhea with straining, chronic dark-green or bloody diarrhea, loss of appetite, and in the worst situation death.

This problem occurs mainly in 1 to 3 month old lambs being raised in crowded conditions rather than in a controlled pasture. Any rapid change of feed ration may predispose lambs to Coccidiosis and usually appears within 3 weeks. Mature sheep develop an immune system, so more often than not signs of infestation do not show. However, these mature sheep can contaminate their surrounds and weak lambs can become infected. A key is not to overcrowd or feed food and water that is contaminated. 

Lambs that recover usually become immune. Routine fecal samples can tell you if there are parasites and give you a jump start to treat infected animals in their early stage.

Internal Parasite Control:
As with all health issues good sanitation is important. Never place feed on contaminated ground or bedding. Water containers and creep-feeders should be kept clean and free from fecal matter.

Any overcrowded area is a main factor to the contribution of heavy parasite population density. The less sheep you have in an area the less problems because there will be fewer infective larvae to develop. If sheep are in an overcrowded area, more often than not they are weaker, and have to nibble away on short grass close to the ground, that ultimately means they ingest more larvae, and contribute through the passing of fecal matter to the increase in larvae numbers. One of the benefits of dividing your pasture into sections is that when you move your sheep from one section to the other, the larvae etc., very often die, and so when you return your sheep to the previous section it is more healthier for them.

In cool damp climates/weather eggs and larvae of several species of worms can survive for as long as 3 months, but may die within a few weeks during hot, dry weather. It is advisable in a moderate humid climate to turn your sheep out in the spring onto a paddock that was used during the heat of the summer, rather than one they were on during in the autumn.

Malnourished sheep have little immunity to worm infestation. Lack of proper nutrients, insufficient protein, and unbalanced nutritional elements, including lack of vitamins and minerals can leave them more vulnerable to worm damage.

Deworming:
This section will be discussed in greater detail later.

There are many drugs available to help control worms. At one time farmers wormed their flock every 3, 4, 6 or 8 weeks, the problem with this is that it is expensive and has led to parasite drug resistance.

Herbal remedies are worth looking into coupled to regular fecal tests.

The question arises, how often do I need to deworm my animals? The answer is as often as necessary. Lambs that are out on pasture with ewes are more prone to problems than mature sheep, so deworm them more often than other animals. If you are planning to send your lambs or sheep for slaughter and have used pharmaceutical wormers pay attention to the note relating to the withdrawal time on the label.

Worm resistance:
The incidence of resistance to worm preparation increases with the frequency of treatment. Resistance can be brought about from improper use of a drug, therefore always follow the instructions on the label. Never give less or an excess of drugs. However, do not assume that just because you use a wormer that the parasites are developing resistance to it. In the past it was recommended to change wormers often in an attempt to avoid developing resistance – this theory has proved to be wrong. The evidence now suggests that you may actually increase the worm population to become resistant to everything. Keep with the same effective wormer until you notice signs of resistance beginning to develop, when this happens it is time change your dewormer. It is important that when you change dewormers, to make sure to switch the class of dewormer because resistance usually develops along chemical classification lines, not brand names. If you are in doubt what is what ask the advice of your veterinarian.

To know whether the worm is becoming resistant to the drug you are using you should do an egg count. If the egg counts are done just before and then 1 week after administration of the prescribed dose of wormer and the percentage of decrease in the number of eggs is less than 80%, the presence of resistant parasites must be strongly suspected. 

If possible treat all new additions to your flock before they enter your premises, check with your veterinarian. After your new additions have been treated the animals should be penned in a dry-grass free area for 24 hours to avoid contamination of pasture with viable eggs that did not pass out of the sheep when the worms are killed.

Targeted worming:
In most sheep farming areas, only approximately 5% of the worm population survives on the pasture during the winter months. This means the remainder of the spring's worm population is in the sheep in the form of arrested larvae that are housed in the form of a cyst. 

It is good practice to deworm your sheep 2 to 3 days before turning them out on the pasture so that they do not increase the population of worms in their new environment. The larvae they expel in the barn are left in the feces and the larvae cannot survive. 

Double-drenching is another method of deworming. It is an oral worm medication and used in the summer dry climates, some farmers are of the opinion that this method reduces the worm burden for the season. They begin by deworming the sheep during dry weather and follow up with another deworming 6 weeks later which should take the level of worms to a less than harmful level. Hot, dry weather significantly reduces the larvae population in pastures. It is also advisable to move the sheep to a clean pasture 24 to 48 hours after each deworming to help keep the pasture clean.

EXTERNAL PARASITES
For the most part, external parasites are more of a nuisance than a major threat to health, however, there are always exceptions. 

The external parasites that cause a threat to sheep that can turn to be deadly and have a substantial affect on profit are, sheep ticks, lice, maggots, nose bots and scab mites. You might wish to check with your vet to see if there are any additions to this list in your part of the world.

Sheep ticks:
A sheep tick is not a true tick, it is a wingless parasitic fly called a "ked". These ticks spend their entire life cycle on the body of sheep laying little brown eggs that are white inside. The eggs take about 19 days to mature.

Sheep ticks are blood suckers and can be found anywhere on a sheep.  To have access to their "dinner" they puncture the sheep's skin, these punctures cause the development of firm, dark nodules and this damages the sheepskin and reduces its value.

Ticks are a nuisance to sheep, they irritate and itch causing the sheep to rub, scratch and damage their wool. Some sheep will bite themselves in an effort to relieve their suffering and have been known to become habitual wool chewers, the wool can then become impacted in the rumen and cause a problem.

Ticks are known to cause weight loss on account of the loss of blood and subsequent anemia. Their feces discolor wool that is difficult to remove and therefore detract from its value. 

Ticks can be easily eradicated through systematic treatment. A mature tick lays only one egg a week, these eggshells become attached to the wool about half to 1 inch (1.3 – 2.5 cm) from the skin, and most are removed when shearing (clipping of the wool). Newly hatched ticks die within an hour because there is no supply of blood to feed them, whereas a mature tick can survive for 2 to 4 days without feeding.

For this to be effective, the entire flock must be treated for ticks at the same time, if you don't, then the untreated sheep will pass their ticks back to those that have been treated.

Inspect a new lamb or sheep before introducing it to your flock, and treat it even if you can find just one tick. Don't make the mistake of leaving any of your sheep with ticks – each sheep must be treated in one season.



Lice:
Lice are most probably the second most troublesome external parasite. There are lice that bite and others that suck.

Lice attach their eggs to the individual wool fibers and these hatch into the nymph stage 1 to 2 weeks later. Unlike other parasites, lice are most active during the winter months.

Lice cause intense irritation and itching, and this makes sheep restless, and causes them to scratch continually, rubbing against walls and fences. This causes interrupted feeding, weight loss, and damages the wool. A sign to be on the look out for is wool hanging from places such as fences, trees and elsewhere, if you find this be certain there is a lice problem.

Treatment for lice is that of the use of insecticides, two treatments are often needed. The good news is that once they are removed from the sheep, they will not return – that is unless you introduce lice-infested sheep into your flock! Prevention is better than cure, so treat any new animals before turning them in with your flock to avoid reinfestation.

Maggots:
Maggots are the larvae of several types of flies – these flies are called "blowflies" and are about twice the size of large houseflies. Most have distinct shiny bodies that are colored blue, green, or silver. They make their presence known in the spring and start reproducing all though hot weather. They lay their eggs at the edge of a wound or in manure-soiled wool. When they begin to attack, it is called "flystrike"

Eggs hatch in between 6 to 12 hours, and the maggots feed on the flesh at the edge of a wound, enlarging it. If not detected and treated this can lead to the death of the animal. Maggots often infest dog bites, so if your sheep have been chased by dogs it is a good idea to check them to see if they have any wounds and for the subsequent flystrike.

Maggots are not a tremendous threat, the real danger is not knowing they are there, what may be a problem is your being able to overcome your dislike of dealing with them. Sheep that are not to heavily infested can be ridden of them easily.

Inspect your sheep and if anything looks at all suspicious treat. Be on the look out for flystrike. A sign is the sighting of large numbers of flies continually pestering an animal. Also check the sheep for moist areas in their fleece. Notice if an animal scratches excessively on a fence – look for white specks in the wool that look somewhat like individual curds of cottage cheese and know that these are egg sacks deposited by flies.

The following procedures will help to lessen problems you encounter with maggots:
Maggot prevention:
1. Keep the rear ends of ewes clean, free from feces that becomes attached to wool, especially if the feces becomes loose. Urine also attracts blowflies.
2. Treat any injury, small or large immediately and spray with fly repellent during hot weather, this includes insect bites.
3. Put a fly repellent on tails that have been cut off (docked) and on castration sites on lambs in warm weather. It is best to dock and castrate them during the spring or in the autumn when the weather is not hot. Always check to see if wounds are healing and keep track of them until they have healed completely.
4. Fly traps or large electronic bug killers reduce the number of flies in a barn as well as surrounding areas.
5. Be especially observant during prolonged wet periods during the summer. Both warm and moist conditions invite flystrike.

It is unlikely that you will have a maggot problem with your entire flock, unless they were attacked by dogs, so you can use a sheep dip on them.

Nose bots:
A nose bot is a mature fly that is dark gray in color and about the size of a bee. The fly and larvae can cause problems for sheep. A full grown larvae is thick, yellowish white with dark bands and are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long.

These pests are found mainly in the frontal sinuses of sheep after having been deposited by the fly on the edge of the nostril. The grubs are less than half an inch (0.2 cm) long. Nose bots cause irritation as they crawl through the nostrils and sinuses, and then work their way up the nasal passages. This causes inflammation that in turn causes a thin secretion that becomes quite thick if the infection occurs. These thickened secretions can make it difficult for the sheep to breath, and you may notice they sneeze frequently. The sheep will most likely go off its feed and become run down due to the stress of being annoyed by flies and this prevents them from grazing peacefully.

When sheep are attacked by these flies it is usually in the heat of the day, subsiding in the late afternoon, you will notice them put their heads on the ground, and stamp. And suddenly run with the heads down to avoid the fly, they will often become frantic and press their noses on the ground or against another sheep to try to prevent an attack. 

Scab Mites:
There are several kinds of parasitic mites that produce scab in sheep. The most common scab mite is pearl-gray in color and about one fortieth of an inch (0.06 cm) long and has four pairs of brownish legs and sharp pointed brownish mouth.

These mite puncture the skin and live on the blood caused by their wound. The skin becomes inflamed and then scabs over with a gray, scaly crust. When this happens the wool falls out and leaves large bare areas exposed.

If you find mites, then you must treat all your flock at the same time because it is contagious. Once the sheep are cleaned they should not enter the infected areas for a period of 30 days.

SHEEP DISORERS
Whereas as parasites are the most common problem for farmers, there are also other disorders that can affect your sheep, with dietary disorders being the most common.

Dietary Disorders:
Bloat is a form of upset stomach that can lead to death if not treated. When a sheep is affected by bloat it does not have the ability to expel the gas build-up that is constantly being produced in the rumen. 

Bloat is very often caused by sudden changes in diet. It can occur when sheep have been fed dry feed, and now that the pastures have their fresh, lush grass being tempted to turn them out on it without giving them dry hay before hand.

It is also common in sheep being grazed on legume pastures rather than those being grazed on a mixture of grass or legumes. It is also more common when pastures are wet after rain or from early morning dew. 

When a sheep has bloat you will notice the left side blow up like a balloon, naturally she feels uncomfortable and will go off her feed.

Treatment of bloat:
As soon as you notice a sheep being bloated, treat it immediately.
1. For an older sheep prepare half a cup (11.83 ml) of water with half a cup (118.3 ml) of cooking oil. Add 2 tablespoons (29.6 ml) of baking soda and mix well and get it down her, try to force at least half (118.3 ml). As for young animals a quarter of a cup (59.2 ml) will do the job.
2. Place a stick (not sharp) in the sheep's mouth, this helps the animal to belch.
3. If the sheep does not begin to belch and seems to be getting worse, insert a stomach tube to vent the gas.
4. Failing all other attempts puncture the rumen with a sharp, sterile knife to expel the gas. Fortunately, the other steps have a good rate of success and this step is an extreme.

Grass Tetany:
Grass Tetany is caused by a deficiency of magnesium. Lactating ewes are often affected by this as are other sheep. When this deficiency occurs the sheep avoid the rest of the flock, their walk is changed it becomes stiff and unnatural, and they go off their feed. Sometime they may appear to be nervous, and twitch or stagger around. They may also lie down frequently only to get back up. In the later stages of grass tetany a sheep will lie flat on its side and pedal its legs in the air, and its breathing becomes difficult which is followed by convulsions and death. 

Have your soil tested to ascertain the levels of magnesium, also potassium and nitrates. If your soil proves to be low in magnesium Grass Tetany will be worse in areas also having high levels of potassium or nitrates.

This disease is less likely to occur in sheep out to pasture having a good mix of legumes with grass, because these deep rooted plants help to bring magnesium up within the soil matrix.

Treatment of Grass Tetany:
The recommended treatment is 50 to 100 ml of a 50% saturated magnesium sulfate solution injected under the skin (subcutaneously).

If your area is an area in which Grass Tetany can occur provide a high magnesium, trace mineral, salt mixture formulated for sheep.

DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES
Viruses can cause several disorders. With the exception of ovine progressive pneumonia, most of these disorders are not very often fatal in mature sheep, however, bluetongue can be fatal in lambs, and soremouth can be transmitted from animals to humans.

Bluetongue:
Gnats are carriers of this virus and bluetongue occurs during warm, wet weather when gnats are active.

The signs to look for in a sheep having contracted bluetongue are a high fever and inflammation of the mucous membranes, other signs include ulcerations around the lips, tongue and dental pad and crusty discharges from the nose. Although this is not often deadly in mature sheep, it can cause lamb birth defects if a ewe gets this disease during pregnancy. Because it is a viral infection, it must run its course however your veterinarian might advise antibiotics to prevent secondary infections.

Soremouth (ecthyma):
This illness is caused by a contagious virus that can be transmitted to humans as well as other sheep. When dealing with sheep with soremouth always use disposable gloves.

The symptoms start with pustules and scabs on the mucus membranes, this includes areas such as lips, eyes, teats and feet.

Vaccines are available for this disease, but it is usual veterinary practice only to vaccinate animals if there is an outbreak. If you have an animal with soremouth in your flock it too will receive a vaccination. The reason for not vaccinating before the disease has shown up is that the current vaccine is a live vaccines which means that it could cause an outbreak if given to a clean flock.

Ovine Progressive Pneumonia:
Thin sheep are targets for disease. Ovine progressive pneumonia is a slow virus similar to AIDS in humans and takes at least 2 years to manifest it signs. This virus slowly causes progressive lung damage. If a ewe contracts it she will gradually lose stamina and body condition and start to have serious breathing problems that bring about physical weakness and fatal pneumonia.

At present there is neither a cure nor a vaccine to protect against Ovine Progressive Pneumonia (OPP) but there are new tests that make disease control possible. To avoid this problem, the animals you intend to breed should be tested each year, and if there are any infected animals they should be eliminated.

Ewes can transmit this disease to their newborn lamb through its milk. The lamb should be taken away from her immediately after birth – do not wait – and raised on a colostrum replacer and lamb milk replacer. The good news is that it is almost 100% effective in preventing OPP being transmitted to the lamb. 

As soon an animal tests positive for OPP it should be isolated immediately from the rest of the flock. The good news is that not every sheep that tests positive actually goes down with the disease, but the disease is invariably fatal. The only way safe way to protect your flock is to have the sheep culled.

DISORDERS THAT RESULT FROM BACTERIA
Bacterial diseases are not very common, but if they should happen to strike they are a serious problem, often with high mortality rates.

Blackleg (Clostridium chauvoei:
If a sheep has blackleg it will run a fever and later swelling in the heavy muscles and also some degree of lameness, but by the time you notice this fever may have broken, and the animal's temperature may now be subnormal. This disease often follows an injury, although sometimes its origin is not discernable. 

Blackleg can be a fatal disease, but if you caught it in the early states it can be treated with antibiotics. Ask your vet whether Clostridium chauvoei is a problem in your area, if it is vaccinate your flock.

Boils (Corynebacterium ovis):
If one sheep is infected then it is most likely others will be too. Boils are suspected of spreading through bacteria escaping from ruptured boils. The bacteria are thought to initially enter the sheep's body through a slight cut, and it is there that the bacteria start to form an abscess in which they make their home. These abscesses can be either external or internal. The external abscess clears up, but the internal one is generally deadly. 

If you notice any kind of abscess, isolate the animal immediately and call your vet to come and drain the abscess and run a test to determine whether or not it is Corynebacterium ovis. If the test is positive, then it is best to slaughter the animal. However, if the disease is caught early enough the vet may be able to surgically remove all the abscesses from a valuable animal. Do not be tempted to try to drain an abscess yourself, it has to be done with great care and when it is not done properly it increases the risk of spreading to the rest of the flock and even to you.

The good news is there is a vaccination available, and when you purchase new sheep, an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is available to test for the disease.

Johne's Disease, (pronounced Yown-ees) Mycobactrium paratuberculosis:
This disease is found in all parts of the world. It is caused by a hardy bacteria that are distantly related to tuberculosis and leprosy in humans.

The are unlike most pathogenic bacteria which die quite quickly when they are out in the environment and not in a host, these bugs have been known to live up to a year outside of a host.

Signs of this disease are displayed in unexplainable weight loss, even though the animal is eating well. The weight loss can be accompanied by intermittent diarrhea, however, the combination of weight loss and diarrhea is easily confused with other diseases.

The good news is that although several animals in an infected flock carry the organism, most develop an immune response and survive. This illness can be tested for by running a bacterial culture on fecal matter and ELISA carried out. Unfortunately, there is no approved vaccine for sheep at this time.

Listeriosis (Listeria monocytogenes):
The bacteria that causes this disease is a relatively common soil microorganism, the disease seems to only be associated with feeding animals spoiled fodder that has fermented, so make sure not to feed your sheep with spoiled fodder. There is no effective treatment for this disease, and prevention is the name of the game. When the disease does show the mortality rate is high.

Symptoms include the disorientation of sheep, circular walking, facial paralysis and dropping ears, lowered eyelids and depression. If a ewe has reached the last part of gestation abortion can occur.

Malignant Edema:
This disease is the result of a wound being infected by one of several Clostridium species, and can be fatal. If a wound infected by Clostridium is caught early, antibiotics can be effective. The best approach to infection with these bacteria is to keep wounds clean, and also maintain a clean environment such as a healthy grass pasture rather than a manure contaminated yard as Clostridium live in the soil and manure.

The good news is there is a vaccine available.

Pinkeye (Infectious keratitis):
Pinkeye is caused by a chlamydial organism and can be quite contagious. When an animal becomes infected its eyes become red, inflamed and water. If the disease is not treated in a timely manner, the eyes become opaque and ulcerated, and blindness can result.

The good news is your vet can supply an ointment or powder to put in the eyes of infected animals.

Scrapie:
Scrapie, is similar to mad cow disease and infected animals display many symptoms including exaggerated movements weight loss, itching, scraping, biting wool on side and legs. There is no known cure for this disease.

Spider Syndrome:
Spider syndrome is a recessive, genetic disorder that seems to affect Suffolk and Hampshire sheep in particular, it has also been known in other black-faced breeds possibly as a result of crossbreeding with Suffolks. When this disorder is present, there are skeletal abnormalities such as splay leggedness hence the name "Spider Syndrome". If you decide to buy a ram of a black faced breed, make sure he has been DNA tested and free from the "s" gene that causes this disorder. 

HOOF RELATED PROBLEMS AND CARE
Most foot diseases are preventable by proper, periodic hoof trimming. The best time to trim an animal's hoof is in the spring and autumn when hooves are still soft from wet weather or after a rainy season. The amount of hoof wear will depend on whether your soil conditions are mud, sand or gravel and whether your barn has a dirt or concrete floor. Hooves that are in good condition should be trimmed twice a year, but they may need to be trimmed more frequently, especially if you live in a wet climate.

Lameness:
Lameness is preventable, by trimming the feet each spring before turning sheep out on to a new pasture. Trim their feet again at shearing time or later on in the year. When hooves are left untrimmed they curl under on the side and pockets which is a home for moist mud and manure build-up, this creates an ideal environment for foot disease germs. Always make sure their bedding is dry during the winter, and keep sheep away from marshy pastures during wet months. It is advisable to change the location of feeding site every now and then to prevent accumulation of manure and muddy areas. A foot bath is a real plus and an important aspect when treating foot disorders and avoiding lameness in sheep.

Foot Examination - limping:
First, look for a lump of mud, a stone, or a sharp splinter caught between the toes on the sore hoof that may have caused a sheep to limp. If there is nothing there, then check the gland. Sheep have a deep gland between the two toes on each foot with a small opening on the top of the front of the hoof, when these gland become plugged with mud the secretion from the gland is retained and the result is lameness. Squeeze the gland, sometimes a fairly large blob of waxy substance pops out. If this is the case the problem is solved and the sheep should improve. However, if there is no evidence of a plugged gland or a foreign object try to discover what the problem may be. By now you have a good idea what a normal hoof should look like and can spot one that is diseased, if everything else looks good, check any injury, including cuts that might be the cause of the problem

Footbath, when using a footbath run the sheep through a trough of plain, clean water first, if you do this then you will keep the bacterial bath clean longer. Provide an additional trough of water elsewhere for the sheep to drink so they don't get thirsty and drink water from the footbath in which they are going to stand.

Before using the footbath, the feet should be trimmed because the footbath chemicals harden the hooves and make them more difficult to trim. Cleanliness is important, so remember to disinfect the knife after every hoof in order not to spread germs.

The choice solution for footbaths is zinc sulfate. If your animals are able to stand in the solution for 1 hour once a week and then another hour the following week it is extremely beneficial. Do not use other chemicals such as formalin or copper sulfate because this could severely burn the sheep's feet.

If you have some sheep that are not limping and others that do, it is a good idea to trim those that are not limping first and put them in the footbath. Once that is finished turn them into a clean pasture, one that hasn’t been grazed for at least a week. Then bathe the feet of limping sheep and keep them in a dry area if possible. These sheep need to be treated regularly that is every 5 to 7 days, or, have them walk through the bath on the way to feeding. 

Try to discover why your sheep limps, see which foot is being favored and then catch it and trim all four hooves if need be, but remember to do the sore one last to avoid the possibility of spreading the infection.

How to construct a footbath:
You will need to use a 4 x 8 sheet of half inch (1.3 cm) waterproof sheathing plywood, and nail 2 x 4s around the edge, then caulk the edges to make it watertight, and a temporary pen around the perimeter. The size of the pen should be able to hold up to eight or ten animals.
.
Hoof trimming:
Ideally the shape of hooves should look similar to those of your half-grown lambs.
To trim hooves you will need either a hoof knife or a jack knife, and a strong pair of leather gloves and arm protection. Make sure that you buy the one for sheep and not cows. Your aim in trimming hooves is to prevent lameness and to give a good flat surface on the bottom of the hoof so that a sheep can stand firmly and squarely on both toes, therefore trim the hoof back to the level of the foot pad.

Trim off the excess horn so that it is level with the sole and does not stick out too far in the front. If there are still pockets where mud and manure can gather, scrape these out with the point of your knife, or the hook on the hoof knife and just trim the hoof back a little farther. 

If you live in a dry climate hooves will be drier and harder to trim and hoof shears can be useful. One of the best shears are made in Switzerland and called pruning shears. The curved blades have less tendency to slip on tough, dry hooves, they are a little more expensive, but are well worth paying a little extra. Another of advantage to these shears is that they have tempered blades that are thin and very sharp, and are easier to "squeeze" than traditional shears. Needless to say, if you decide to use this type of shear, take care, it is very easy to over-trim the hoof and cut your hand. 

Foot Rot:
Foot rot is a bacterial disease rather than one caused by bad weather. There are two different kinds of bacteria that can cause foot rot, one of which is Fusobacterium necrophorum which is always present in soil, but by itself does not cause a problem. The second kind is Dichelobacter nodosus, which can rampage through a flock.

The good news about Dichelobacter is that it can only live in a sheep's hoof for approximately 2 weeks, this means if you keep the sheep off a pasture for 2 weeks the organisms will die off in soil. But, and there is always a "but", there are some sheep that act as carriers of foot rot, and constantly reinfect the soil other sheep walk on. The best solution is, as with all new additions to the flock, to put them in quarantine for 2 weeks from being introduced to your existing foot-rot free flock. This type of bacteria grows in an oxygen free environment, deep in the tissue of the hoof. This is why hoof trimming is an important part of the foot rot treatment, when the dead tissue is removed and oxygen can enter.

The sign of the start of foot rot is the reddening of the skin between the toes of the hoof. As for smell, it can be either faint or absent in the beginning, but as it progresses it becomes pungent as the condition worsens.

Infection begins in the softy horny tissue between the hoof, or, on the ball of the heel and then spreads to the inner hoof wall.  Thereafter as the disease progresses, the surface of the tissue between the underrun horn develops a slimy appearance. You will notice that the horny tissue of the toes has become detached and now separates from the hoof wall from the underlying tissue and this causes the toe to become misshapen or deformed. There is hardly any soft-tissue swelling.

The followings are steps you can take to treat foot rot:
1. Trim the hooves and remove as much of the infected part as possible. Don't forget to disinfect the knife after each hoof, and make sure to burn all the hoof trimmings.
2. Now that you have trimmed the hooves, get the sheep to walk through a footbath preparation of zinc sulfate.
3. If possible, keep the sheep in a dry yard or pasture for 24 hours.
4. Vaccinate.

Foot Scald
Foot scald is similar to foot rot and has often been mistaken as such. Foot scald is similar to athlete's foot in humans. When a sheep has foot scald it usually involves the soft tissue between and above the toes and the heel. A hoof with this problem becomes inflamed, whereas the tissue is moist and sometimes has open sores.

Foot Scald takes hold in damp conditions such as a rainy season in which pastures are wet but improves when weather conditions dry-up. It also occurs by, prolonged walking in mud, or through dirt abrasion, or foreign objects becoming lodged between the toes.  

Foot scald should not go unattended, and is common. It should be treated as soon as it is observed because it lessens the foot's resistance and more serious problems can evolve as abscesses, and foot rot, both of which cause a sheep to go off its feed and because the foot is painful they do not exercise enough.

Treatment is fairly simple. As with other foot problems, trim the hooves and in addition spray them with hydrogen peroxide. If this does not work, then treat with a zinc sulfate footbath as you would do for foot rot. If you don't have a footbath try the following:

Buy specially made booties, put them on the sheep and fill them with the footbath solution. If these booties are not available in your area then use a large can filled with about 2 inches (5.1 cm) of the foot bath solution, then soak the affected foot for 5 minutes. You can repeat if necessary.

Bumble Foot:
This is an abscess within the hoof structure and usually affects only one foot. It is infectious but not to the degree of foot rot.

A sheep with this problem develops the formation of thick pus, and as the internal pressure increases the sheep becomes more and more lame. Sometimes you might notice there is a swelling above the hoof and it will feel a little warmer than other foot problems.

The culprit is bacteria in manure and dirt which enter through cuts or a wound and thereafter infect the soft tissue. Most often there is a reddening of the tissue between the toes. If the infection is allowed to progress it may move into the joints and ligaments and when this occurs it is almost incurable because it is impossible to reach.

If a pregnant ewe has an abscess it will stop grazing and be slow to feed on grain, and of course it will not get enough exercise, and this can cause pregnancy toxemia. As you will know by now, insufficient nutrition leads to low birth weight of lambs and insufficient milk.

If the pressure is released by an incision, the abscess may eventually break and discharge the pus, as this occurs, squeeze out the pus and treat. 

HOW TO GIVE A MEDICATION
First and foremost always follow the directions on the label which will tell you the 
dosage, length of administration and method of administration. Look for expiry date and discard any out-of-date medicament. If you intend sending sheep on medication for slaughter check the label to see how many days to withdraw the medicine before slaughter.

The various types of administration of certain drugs follows:
1.Oral medication with large pills called boluses are given with a bolus gun or with capsule forceps.
2. Oral powder, such as vitamins are placed well back on the tongue. However if it is  for the whole flock mix with feed, minerals, or drinking water.
3. Oral liquid is given as a drench with the use of a syringe or is given in drinking water.
4. Oral pastes that are easy to use are sold with an applicator for smearing on the tongue of the sheep – several worming medications are sold as paste.
5. Spray-on and sprinkle-on products such as those used to treat pinkeye or insect eradication, including maggot or screwworm bombs.
6. Dips commonly used for treating large number of animals with insecticides. This treatment involves a tank large enough to accommodate a sheep full of solution in which the animals are forced to swim.
7. Pour-ons, such as iodine on the navel of a newly born lamb, disinfectant on minor wounds and certain insecticides.
8. Subcutaneous injections; medication injected just under the skin.
9. Intradermal injections; medication given into the skin.
10. Interamuscular injection, which is a liquid such as antibiotics injected into heavy muscle.
11. Intramammary injection, which is the administration of either fluid or ointment such as mastitis drugs through the teat opening.
12. Intraperitoneal injection, which is liquid given through the right flank into the abdominal cavity and should be done by a veterinarian.
13. Intravenous injection, which is fluid administered into a vein. It is advisable to either get your vet to do this or ask an experienced person to do it.
14. Intranasal which is the spraying of vaccine up into the nasal cavity.
15 Uterine boluses to prevent infection after an assisted lambing.

Injections: 
To avoid serious infections equipment must be sterile, therefore only use clean and sterile syringes, needles should be disposable. If reusable syringes are being used then sterilize them by boiling for at least 30 minutes. Needles can be boiled but they become dull and dull needles are one of he most common causes of injection site infections because they force dirt, grease, and bacteria through the skin. Storing needles in alcohol can also cause the points of needles to become blunt as they rub against the side of the container.

Disposable plastic syringes are preferable and are not expensive.

When it comes to withdrawing doses for several sheep, protect the contents from contamination by sanitizing the top of the vial with disinfectant, then insert a sterile needle that should be left in the bottle. Fill the syringe, leave the needle in the bottle, and attach a separate needle to the syringe for injection. For the next dose, detach the used needle, fill the syringe with the needle left in the vial, and reattach a new or disinfected needle. In this way you protect the medication from contamination and can save the balance of the contents through to the expiry date.

Inactivated vaccines can be saved. Live vaccines cannot be saved. This is because once the have been opened and exposed to the air, live vaccines become unstable.

The needle must not be allowed to touch anything, if it does it is no longer sterile, it is a good idea to have some one to help hold the sheep or hand you the necessary medicine or equipment.

Before giving an injection swab the skin where you intend to inject with alcohol. The swab mechanically removes the majority of skin bacteria contained in the body oils, however it does not sterilize the skin.  Do not be tempted to simply wet the skin with alcohol or for that matter, most disinfectants, because what you are doing is putting bacteria in the solution where they can be more readily picked up by the needle and carried into the injection site. It is best that injections are given in a dry "clean" skin, "by clean" means, from excessive grease and manure etc. because this contributes to fewer injection site contaminations. Avoid giving injections to sheep that are wet. As for routine vaccinations get them done during dry weather.

Drugs must be protected from both sun and freezing. Most medications require a temperature above freezing but below 50 degrees Fahrenheit (10 degrees Celsius). The golden rule is to read the label on each medication for directions on how they should be stored. Many antibiotics require refrigeration – keep the packet do not forget to check the expiration date before and after reuse. There are some drugs that when administered in their correct dose are effective, but should an overdose be administered it could be either harmful or even fatal. When in doubt always ask your vet for advice.

Subcutaneous injection (given under the skin):
This type of injection should be given at body temperature, even more so with young lambs. It can be given in the neck, but it is preferable to inject in the loose, hairless skin behind and below the armpit called "the axillary space", to the rear of the elbow, over the chest wall, but be careful not to inject into the armpit, this could happen if the injection is made too far forward. The armpit is a large cavity underlying the entire shoulder blade area, with a major artery crossing it, together with veins and serve the front leg. There are some vaccines that irritate, and if injected into the axillary space could cause a severe reaction and lameness.

For mature sheep a dose of 10 ml is best distributed over several sites rather than all in the same place.

Do not inject near a joint or in areas with more than a small amount of fat under the skin. Veins are not usually a problem with this type of injection, but if you want to be sure you are not in a vein, then the plunger can be pulled out very slightly before injecting, if there is blood, try another spot

Medication for subcutaneous use should never be injected into a muscle.

How to give a subcutaneous injection:
First, pinch a fold of loose skin.
Second, insert the needle into the space under the skin.
              Hold the needle parallel to the body surface.
Third, push the plunger.
Fourth, rub the area afterwards to distribute the medication and quicken absorption.

How to give an intracutaneous or an intradermal injection:
Intradermal injections are rarely used, but when they are the needle is inserted so close to the surface that it can be seen through the outer layer of the skin, in a site the same as for subcutaneous administration. The injection is made slowly while the needle is being drawn out to distribute the dose along the needle's course.

How to give and intramuscular injection:
This type of injection is given in the top of the neck about 6 inches (15 cm) down from the center of the back or top of the thigh where it joins the hip, that is about 8 inches (20 cm) down from the center of the back. If you are new ask your vet or an experienced person to show you. Observe the exact place thereby avoiding nerves and the best cuts of meat.

Get someone to help you to hold the sheep still, then thrust the needle quickly into the muscle. Once again, you do not want to hit a blood vessel, i.e. pull the plunger out very slightly before injecting, if there is blood, try another spot.

How to give an intramammary injection:
First, milk out the affected side of the udder as much as possible. Wash your hands and the udder thoroughly, then, carefully disinfect the teats several times with a few minutes apart. A solution of half laundry bleach and half water works well. Dry the end of the teat with a clean paper towel to avoid injecting germs when you insert the medication.

The tips of udder antibiotic syringes are designed for cattle and are difficult to use in sheep, though some have a fine tip design that works well for sheep. Cleanliness is very important when infusing the udder. Do not remove the cap of the infusion tube until you are ready because of the risk of bacterial or fungal contamination which leads to further complications. Now that you are ready gently insert the tip into the teat canal. Squeeze the medication into the teat. Massage the dose upward toward the base of the udder.

Intraperitoneal Injection:
Your vet is the one to administer this injection. The risk of peritonitis which is a diseases that affects the membrane that lines the cavity of the abdomen are common. 

Before the administration of this injection, the wool from the right flank is clipped, in the shallow triangular depression below the spine between the last rib and the point of the hip bone. The site of the injection is scrubbed with soap, rinsed, dried and disinfected with iodine. The medication is then injected into the center of this depression and goes into the peritoneal abdominal cavity.

The medication should be at the temperature of the sheep's body. A sterile 24 ml or 50 ml syringe and a sterile 16 gauge needle will be needed. The bottle stopper should be disinfected before withdrawing the medication. Use a separate sterile needle to give the medication to reduce the possibility of introducing the infection into the body cavity. The needle is held perpendicular to the skin, pointed toward the center of the body. Thereafter the full length of the needle is inserted quickly and the medication injected. If it does not inject easily, the needle may be clogged with tissue or may be in the wrong place. If this is the case then withdraw the needle, replace with a new one and try again, then rub the injection site with disinfectant.

Antibiotics:
Care must always be taken to ensure that antibiotics, as well as other drugs are used properly and never overused. Research indicates that the improper use of antibiotics can give rise to new strains of drug resistant bacteria, not only in animals but also humans.

Antibiotics may either kill or seriously impair bacterial growth but are useless against viruses.

Antibiotics are only effective in adequate dosages. If sheep are given a low concentration, that is below the recommended levels, or discontinued before the recommended period of treatment there is the danger that they will not kill the more resistant bacteria in the infection. This can result in a relapse of the condition, or make conditions worse with a serious, chronic infection that might well be difficult or impossible to treat if the bacteria develop resistance to the antibiotic.

A draw back with certain forms of antibiotics is that they can upset normal body functions, some are known to kill the beneficial bacteria that both aid in digestion and compete with harmful bacteria and fungi, and this makes animals prone to enteric upsets and infections. Shepherds have taken to giving yogurt which contains cultures of beneficial digestive bacteria to lambs after having been treated with antibiotics or an illness to reestablish the "friendly" bacteria. If illness should strike it is best to get it diagnosed by a vet to see if there are any antiserum of vaccination available, or if an antibiotic treatment would do the job.

Mastitis and some respiratory diseases are among the few examples of disorders for which there are no vaccines, and antibiotics are needed once the infection is established.

Parasite Preparations:
There are many to choose from, however, the best is one that gives broad-spectrum control. 

It is better not to use parasite preparations unless they are really necessary. Ivomec is used by many shepherds.

Vaccines and other biologicals.
There are some types of immunizing agents only intended for protection against a disease and have little or no effect in the treatment of the disease. 

Vaccination and immunization are two different things, because the administration of the antigen vaccination results in immunization only if the immune system in a sheep is normal and functioning.

Ask your vet to draw up a vaccination schedule for your flock, because vaccination must be done well before the period in which disease occur. Why? Well it usually takes up to 1 month for maximum immunity to develop. However, there are some vaccines that take up to 45 days after the last dose had been administered for maximum protection against a disease.

There are four classes of immunizing agents, and all are commonly called vaccines.

Antisera: These are often called antitoxins or serums, and are from the serum of hyperimmune animals – that is they have received multiple doses of vaccine to confer a high specific antibody level against a particular disease.

An antisera is used for temporary, or passive immunity and its effect lasts between 10 – 20 days. This type of vaccine is used to protect animals for a short time when a disease is present in the herd and also to treat infected animals. It can also be used on lambs.

It is not usual, but an antiserum may sometimes be administered together with a vaccine to give immediate protection during the period when the sheep's own active immunity is developing. Consult with your vet in the administration of a combination of antisera and vaccine because in some instances the hyperimmune serum can neutralize the vaccine.

Bacterins: These contain killed bacteria and/or fractions of the bacterial cell. They are suspensions of bacteria that were grown in culture media and then chemically or heat killed.

These vaccines are not capable of producing disease and can be used without risk of spreading disease. 

Always follow the manufacturer's label. Most bacterins require a priming injection, followed by a booster 1 – 4 weeks later. The first injection offers very little immunity, whereas the actual protection comes after the booster shot. Animals are usually protected for a maximum of 6 months to a year between boosters. 

Toxoids: These contain the inactivated toxins produced by bacteria, usually they are clostridial organisms such as those that cause tetanus and enterotoxemia.

Toxoids stimulate the sheep to produce neutralizing antibodies against the toxin, and thereby protected against their deadly consequence.

Vaccines: These are derived from viral agents and are either a modified live or killed biological preparation. A killed vaccine stimulates the immune system to build its own protective antibodies, whereas modified live vaccines contain strains of the virus that cannot cause the disease but still retain the immune stimulating potential. Most modified live virus vaccines produce greater and longer lasting protection than the killed variant, although there are exceptions.



IMMUNIZING SHOTS
Whereas immunizing shots should be stored in a cool place they should not be allowed to freeze. Always buy from a reliable source because if they have been stored or incorrectly transported before they reach you, they could be worthless.

There are several ways to apply vaccines, i.e. scratching the skin, injecting subcutaneously, intramusucularly and spraying into the nasal cavity. 

Ewes and lambs are usually vaccinated on the side of the breast bone – that is the lower chest wall behind the elbow, or the site of the neck. Never inject vaccines into the armpit.

What types of shots are necessary for your flock will depend upon your area, taking into consideration the climate, type of operation, the prevalence of nearby flocks of sheep, the purchasing of new animals and the conditions in which the sheep must be raised.

As with all medications always follow the instructions for the administration of shots.

UNAPPROVED DRUGS
Some approved drugs available in other countries may not be approved in your country. If a sheep farmer uses an unapproved drug without a veterinarian's prescription, it is illegal and the producer will be held legally and financially responsible if residues are produced and detected. Also they could prove deadly to your animals.



CHAPTER 8
POSSIBLE PROBLEMS RELATING TO
 RAMS, EWES AND LAMBS

Good, clean management techniques can either minimize or eliminate most problems before they begin. Rams have far fewer problems than ewes, however because of their influence when it comes to breeding, if they have a problem, then that problem can affect the next generation of lambs.

There is little doubt newly born lambs are the most vulnerable of all your flock.

POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH RAMS
Your ram contributes genetic material to each of your lambs therefore his health is always critical to production.

Epididymitis: 
This is a disease caused by one of several organism that damage sperm-producing tissues that has, in the west, increased greatly.

Advanced signs of this problem can include swelling located at the base of the testis – epididymis, coupled with the presence of hard, lump tissue. This disease is transmitted from one ram to another via the ewes during breeding season. If the ewe should become infected she could abort, deliver still borns, or produce weak lambs.

There are tests for this disease. Treatment is more often than not unsuccessful, but if it is caught early on, when the only indication is the presence of white blood cells in the semen, then high doses of antibiotics such as tetracycline and streptomycin may do the job. This can be a way to save a valuable ram, but it requires isolation and extensive monitoring.

Recently a new vaccine was developed and it might be worth your while to consider, especially if you live in an area where this disease is established.

Orchitis:
This problem is caused by several species of bacteria, and causes inflammation of either one or both of the testicles. The signs of this disease are swelling, pain and heat in the affected testicle/s.

If one testicle is affected, the ram can still reproduce after having been treated with antibiotics such as oxytetracycline or procaine penicillin.

If two testicles are infected, the ram will be sterile. 

Pizzle rot:
This is brought on by a combination of a high protein diet with bacteria. Its medical name is Corynebacterium renale. Corynebacterium renale inhabits either the skin of the prepuce, or the foreskin of the ram's penis.

Corynebacterium renale doesn't cause a problem by itself, but when a ram is on a high protein diet he passes more urea in his urine and the bacteria break down the urea into ammonia. The result is that the ammonia "burns" the area and this causes ulceration. It is painful for the ram, and if things get out of hand secondary problems might be experienced ranging from flystrike to death.

The good news is prevention is fairly easy – just don't feed a diet that is too high in protein. For example, do not feed rams on straight legume hay, rather feed a grass-legume mix of hay. 

Whereas minor cases of pizzle rot can be treated with antibiotic ointments, advanced pizzle rot may require antibiotic injects and in some cases surgery.

Ulcerative Dermatosis:
This is a form of venereal disease and can be transmitted by rams to ewes, however the disease is uncommon. This disease can be mistaken for pizzle rot on account of the fact that the early symptoms are somewhat alike. Ulcerative dermatosis most often occurs in the autumn and winter and is triggered when an irritant such as snow ice or cockle burrs damage the skin and allow the virus to enter.

As soon as a ram develops an infection, he should be isolated, overtime the disease runs it course, but the important matter is if the ram introduces it to the ewes, it will circulate through the flock forever. 

POSSIBLE DISORDERS IN EWES
During pregnancy and lactation periods the body of a ewe undergoes a lot of stress and problems can occur.

Abortion:
There are several causes that bring about an abortion:
Moldy feed
Injury
Chlamydia
Vibriosis
Toxoplasmosis
Salmonellosis

When a feed contains mold spores and fed to pregnant ewes it can infect and destroy the placenta. As for injury abortion can be caused when a ram is running with pregnant ewes and bumps them away from feed supplies. Narrow doorways where sheep tend to rush through for feed are dangerous, especially during the later stages of pregnancy when the sheep becomes large.

Dog attacks are almost always a cause for abortion among ewes that have been chased or injured.

Disease can also cause a ewe to abort. However, the good news is that there is now a combination vaccine for enzoogic abortion and vibriosis (EAE-vibrio). This vaccine can be administered 2 weeks before the ewe is bred, with a booster shot given each year 2 weeks before breeding.

Enzootic Abortion (EAE):
This type of abortion is caused by Chlamydia psittaci, and occurs during the late term of pregnancy, it can also cause still births, and weak lambs. Chlamydia psittaci should not be confused with Chlamydia that causes respiratory disease, Epididymitis in rams, pinkeye, or arthritis in sheep. However, if a flock where Chlamydia. psittaci is present, other problems such as pneumonia can arise. The good news is that there is a vaccination for this disease.

Chlamydia. psittaci is spread to other pregnant ewes by contact with ewes in the process of aborting, it can also be spread through infected fetal membranes, uterine discharges, or a dead fetus.

If the problem is introduced to a hitherto clean flock, the rate of abortion can be as much as 60%, however after a couple of years, this drops to around 5%.

Although vaccinations are available, they cannot help during an outbreak. The signs of vibrosis and this disease are similar, therefore laboratory analysis must be used to identify the exact cause of an abortion. 

The good news is that the vaccination for this disease EAE-vibro vaccine protects from both.

If an outbreak of this disease occurs, administering 300-500 mg per sheep of tetracycline per day helps to bring the problem under control. If more than one ewe aborts, start this treatment immediately and continue until test results come back. This disease (EAE) is contagious, therefore aborting ewes should be removed from the flock and kept in quarantine for 30 days – all the bedding from quarantine pens must be burned.

Vibriosis:
The culprit of this disease is bacteria called Campylobacter fetus. This type of bacteria lives in the gallbladder and intestine of the ewe, it then invades the uterus, placenta and fetus during late pregnancy. If Campylobacter fetus is introduced to a clean flock, then 90% of the ewes will lose their lambs, the good news is that once this has happened, the ewes become immune to the bacteria and won't abort on account of this again. The bad news is they can be carriers and contaminate both feed and water supplies which mean ewes that were unaffected previously can become infected. 

To counteract this disease ewes can be vaccinated at the beginning of the breeding season and there after given a booster 90 days later. Once vaccinated, they will require just one annual booster. Ask your vet if he recommends the use of tetracycline or a penicillin preparation for treating ewes in a newly inflected flock.

Toxoplasmosis:
Toxoplasmosis is caused by a microscopic protozoan, and can cause abortion. Its natural host is a cat, other hosts can include humans.

It is a parasite that invades many tissues and cause infections in the brain, eyes, uterus, fetal membranes, and the fetus itself.

Sheep pick up the disease through the feces of cat that has defecated on hay, grain or other food consumed by sheep. A cat will use ground-up grain as a litter box – so be sure to keep it well sealed.

At present there is no vaccine or effective treatment for sheep. However, farm cats can be treated whereas stray cats should be removed immediately. Cleanliness is a key issue, provision of clean uncontaminated water, dry, protected storage of both hay and grain, and off the ground feeding troughs all contribute to a reduction of and spread of disease.

Salmonellosis:
This disease is brought on by poor sanitation, and contaminated feed and lack of clean water.

There are several species of Salmonella bacteria that can cause abortion. The good news is that the disease is rare, but when it does strike it is highly contagious.

Signs of salmonella in an infected ewe are a high fever, severe diarrhea and lack of interest in feed. Most ewes that contract this disease abort and some may die. Those that do go full term and have lambs will not have enough milk to raise them, and these lambs that are generally weak, die.

There isn't a vaccine against salmonellosis, neither are their approved antibiotics, ask your vet for further advice if this rare disease should strike.

PROBLEMS OTHER THAN ABORTION
Mastitis:
Mastitis is an infection that causes the udder to become inflamed and usually affects only one side. It can be caused by yeast but more likely by one of several species of bacteria.

When a ewe has an acute form of this problem it runs a high fever (105-107 degrees Fahrenheit (40.6-41.7 degrees Celsius). The affected side of her udder is hot, swollen and painful, you will notice her limping carrying one hind leg as far from the udder as possible, and it is unlikely that she will let her lamb nurse. The consistency of the milk becomes thick and flaky, full of curds or even watery.

Early detection and prompt treatment can minimize udder scarring.

One type of acute mastitis results in gangrene, when this is the case the udder becomes almost blue and is cold when touched. This type of mastitis is critical and requires treatment via intramuscular or intravenous (IV) antibiotics, and she may also require IV fluids, in order to save her.

When the problem is chronic or sub-clinical, mastitis may be undetected and show up at the ewe's next lambing. In this case only half of her udder will contain milk, while the other half is hard. Mild cases may be the result of bruises. Bruising can actually be caused by large lambs, especially near weaning, they nozzle their mothers with great zest as they nurse. It can also be caused by twins anxious for their milk. Mild mastitis has fewer symptoms, and the ewe may bring about the weaning of her lambs by just refusing to let them nurse.

As soon as you suspect mastitis, take a sample of the ewe's milk to the vet where the sample can be examined under a microscope, and culture, and sensitivity tests can be run. The affected half of the udder is unlikely to be able to produce milk again unless the problem is noticed early and treated promptly. Ewes that are treated aggressively at the first signs have a good chance of cure.

Vets very often prescribe Injectable antibiotics for mastitis, he/she may also advise you to use a teat medication used for cows. The applicator is large and not so easy to handle, but it can be used with sheep. Squirt the product directly into the teat.

The infected side should be milked out as much as possible and as often as it is possible, and the milk must be destroyed. There are combination treatment drugs available for both acute and chronic mastitis.

Milk fever (hypocalcemia):
Milk fever is an emergency, the ewe's life is threatened.

A lot of calcium is required to form strong healthy bones and teeth of developing lambs and also for milk production and a ewe may suddenly be incapable of supplying all the calcium needed. When this is the case it might be on account of calcium deficiency in a ewe's diet, or it could be triggered by a metabolic disturbance.

Milk fever, is also called lambing sickness and hypocalcemia. It is serious and can become fatal in just a short time. The lack of sufficient calcium in a ewe becomes apparent after she has lambed, however, it can show up 24 hours before the birth and is easily confused with pregnancy toxemia. Contributing factors to this problem near the end of pregnancy can be an abrupt change of feed, periods without feed, sudden change in the weather.

The onset of milk fever strikes suddenly, and the disease progresses rapidly. The first signs are excitability, muscle tremors, and a stilted gait. These are followed by staggering, rapid breathing, staring eyes, and dullness. The ewe will lie down and be unable to get up. If she reaches the final stages of the disease, she will slip into a coma and die. Strange as it may seem, although the disorder is called a "fever" the temperature remains normal or even subnormal, and the ears become very cold. If the ewe is down but not comatose, there is a chance of recovery. 

There are several veterinary preparations for treatment available including a paste than can be given orally during the early onset of milk fever. However, never give the paste once the ewe is down, because there is the possibility that if she can't swallow it correctly, the paste will enter her lungs and kill her within a short time. The good news is that if a ewe is down, IV treatment is the best bet, it works very quickly in restoring the ewe, however, this treatment should not be attempted by an inexperienced shepherd. Call your vet out and tell him to come as quickly as possible. If for some reason he is unavailable then inject the ewe subcutaneously with 75 to 100 ml of calcium gluconate in five places. This medication should be in your medical supply box for cases of emergency. 

Subcutaneous injections act more slowly, but there is less of a chance of causing cardiac arrest than an IV injection, and this is much safer for the inexperienced shepherd. Calcium gluconate can also be given intraperitoneally in the paunch on the right side of the ewe. To do this lay the ewe on her left side, and inject into the right side if she has already lambed. This method is faster than subcutaneous and safer than an intravenous injection.

The result is close to a miracle, the ewe gets up minutes after treatment. You must continue to give some paste twice a day for 3 days after the onset. Next year keep an eye on the ewe that had the problem because it could occur during the next lambing.

Pregnancy Toxemia – ketosis:
Pregnancy toxemia usually occurs in the last week or so of pregnancy and often in twin or triplet carrying ewes. If this disease is not treated or a ewe does not lamb straight away it is highly fatal.

It can be reliably diagnosed by using a urine test strip, however, this disease is usually recognizable by its symptoms.

The cause is an excessive buildup of ketones – they are byproducts of fat metabolism, in the bloodstream. This disease runs in a vicious cycle, because multiple or large fetuses require high amounts of nutrients, but as they grow and take up more abdominal room, the ewe's ability to consume sufficient feed to support her and her unborn lambs is drastically reduced. Her problem is insufficient energy intake. When a ewe cannot consume enough energy to sustain herself and the lambs, she begins to use stored body fat to provide this energy. When she had broken down significant levels of body fat, there is the possibility that the ketones are being produced faster than her body can excrete them. When this occurs, the ketones build up to toxic levels which brings about pregnancy toxemia.

This problem afflicts ewes that are on a high fiber (hay), low-energy (no grain) diet and ewes that are too fat in early pregnancy. Another contributory fact is stress and forced activity that also place demands on the ewe's energy supply, and trigger the toxemia in borderline cases of inadequate nutrition. To determine which ewes are not getting sufficient nutrition, test kits are available, they can be used on ewes you suspect are having multiple births.

Signs to watch out far are ewes looking sleepy eyed, dopey acting, dullness, weakness in the legs and breath that has a distinctive odor. Usually, they refuse to eat, and are unable to rise, they grind their teeth, and their breathing is rapid. If they are not treated early it is unlikely they will recover.

The good news is, when it is caught early, it is easy to treat. You can treat her by giving 4 ounces (118.3 ml) of propylene glycol not the poisonous type of glycol used in antifreeze. 4 ounces (118.3 ml) of glycerin diluted with warm water, or a commercial preparation that can be given orally twice a day. To prevent a relapse, continue treatment for 4 days even if she seems to have recovered!

Once a full blown case has occurred, it might be too late for treatment to be effective, and a cesarean section will be necessary to save the ewe. As for the lamb, unless the ewe is very close to her birthing date the lamb will be lost. Subclinical pregnancy toxemia is a more mild form of the same disease and is characterized by a weakened ewe that may produce a small or a dead lamb.

Retained Afterbirth, placenta:
Retained afterbirth is uncommon. In most cases the afterbirth comes away normally within the first hour after lambing, the length of time depends on the ewe's activity. Should you notice the afterbirth to be partially hanging out do not attempt to pull it because this might cause the ewe to strain and bring about a prolapse or some other form of injury. Vets do not consider the afterbirth to be truly retained until at least 6 hours after lambing. Some ewes actually eat the afterbirth, so don't be too concerned and think it is retained, even though time has passed.

If the removal of the afterbirth is necessary, it is best done by your vet because he/se can differentiate between the maternal and fetal cotyledons. The removal of the afterbirth before 48 hours after birth is usually inadvisable during this time the vet may prescribe the drug oxytocin to help the ewe expel the afterbirth. If it is allowed to remain in the ewe, a retained afterbirth will result in uterine infection and sterility.

Nutritional deficiencies, and in particular a deficiency in selenium, seem to play a role in retaining the afterbirth.

Vaginal prolapse:
If a ewe's vagina is going to prolapse then it is most likely to occur before lambing, however, it can occur after a difficult labor. If you observe the vaginal lining, which is a red mass protruding from the genital opening, do not delay treating it because it will become progressively worse and that means more difficult to "repair".

The good news is that it is an infrequent problem, however, always be on the watch for it.

Should you notice the lining just beginning to protrude, then get the ewe into a crate that is capable of elevating her hind end, by doing this you will decrease the pressure. Let her head stick out and feed her mostly grain and some green feed such as grass, weeds or give her a treat of a couple of apples, make sure they do not have green seeds which are poisonous to them. Do not give ground-up grain or rolled oats and their like because the dust might cause her to cough and this will aggravate the problem still further.

A well used solution to this problem, which also should be started as soon as possible, is to use a prolapse retainer sometimes called a ewe-bearing retainer. This retainer is a flat, plastic tongue.
 
Before inserting the prolapse retainer, wash the prolapse free from all dirt and follow these procedures:
1. strap a rope or belt around her middle so that she cannot strain after your replace the prolapse. Tie a quarter of an inch (4.1 cm) rope securely around her flank in front of the udder, but not too tight that she is prevented from lying down or getting up. Once she goes into labor the rope must be removed.
2. wash your hands, and disinfect the loop.
3. wash the prolapse with cold (not hot), antiseptic water.
4. as you gently replace the vaginal lining a ewe may well urinate, so do not be surprised. The bulging of the prolapse may have blocked the opening to the urinary tract, and if prolonged, this blockage can turn to be fatal.
5. use a lubricant to assist in replacing the lining, and gently press out all the creases. This is much easier with the hind end elevated rather then when she is laying flat. 
6. hold the vagina in place with one hand, insert the prolapse loop straight in, flat and horizontally.
7. the loop is held in place by either sutures or by tying it to clumps of wool if the ewe has not been sheared..
8. to reduce the risk of infection give her a shot of a broad-spectrum antibiotic.

There is no need to remove the retainer when the ewe lambs, but you can remove it as she goes into labor, however it is safer to leave it in place to protect against the prolapse recurring with the expulsion of the lamb.

A ewe such as this is best culled, because a prolapse causes permanent damage and it might happen again in the next lambing. Also, this disorder could be a genetic weakness so it is best not to keep either her or her lambs for breeding.

After the ewe has lambed, the best approach is to suture the vagina to hold it in, but it is not such a good idea to do this before she gives birth because the sutures must be removed at that time.

How to suture the vagina:
1. Dental floss, a curved needle, and pliers will be needed. The pliers help to get a good grip on the needle and pull it through.
2. The safest approach is to use only 1 deep stitch at the top of the vaginal opening and 1 across the bottom.
3. Insert the needle from right to left at the top, then bring it down and insert it from left to right at the bottom.
4. Tie a knot with the two ends on the right side. The advantage of sewing this way, rather than crossing the stitches across the center of the opening is that you can tell when the lamb is coming. There is sufficient room for the feet and nose to show and this allows you time to cut the stitches.

If the ewe is beyond 143 days of gestation, you can ask your vet to prescribe or give a medication such as Dexamethasone or oxytocin that will trigger the onset of labor. Then after she has lambed the replacement and suturing can be done again.

Selenium is well known to be particularly important in preventing a prolapse. Selenium is also known to increase a lamb's survival and also to prevent white muscle disease in lambs.

A ewe that has had a selenium supplemented ration or a selenium – vitamin E injection will most likely have an adequate level of plasma selenium and will produce milk with sufficient selenium. However, too much selenium is very toxic, so do not give a ewe a selenium enriched ration, plus a mineral – salt mix with selenium, plus injections - because this is a dangerous combination. When in doubt ask your vet! Always read the labels thoroughly and follow the instructions. A new born lamb should never be injected with more than 1.0 mg of selenium. Run a soil test to see if your soil is selenium deficient, you can also ask you vet to do a blood test to see what is needed.

POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH LAMBS
Lambs are highly vulnerable during the first 10 days of their lives to many disorders, and will be more fully discussed in further in the chapter dedicated to lambing.

Acidosis:
Acidosis is acute indigestion, the disease is also named "founder". The cause of this problem is excessive production of lactic acid that has been suddenly gorged upon or grain, or other feeds high in carbohydrates. It can also occur in lambs fed on high grain-low roughage diets.

The fermentation of high energy diets produces and excess of lactic acid and this causes toxicity. As the acidity increases in the rumen sever digestive upset or even death can occur.

Signs of this disease affecting your flock are marked by the death of a lot of lambs, which is also a sign of the disease enterotoxemia, and therefore difficult to determine the cause of death. Lambs show signs of depression, lameness, coma and death.

Feed that is at least than 50% roughage – that is hay and/or pasture – is safe for lambs, if you want to feed them grain it should be made very gradually.

Constipation:
When a lamb is constipated you will notice it standing hunched up in an uncomfortable manner. Its droppings are few and hard, sometimes they will grind their teeth. This problem must not be left untreated because the lamb could go into convulsions and die.

Most cases of constipation can be treated, including that caused by unpassed meconium (first manure passed). To treat lambs under 2 weeks old give them 2 tablespoons (29.6 ml) of vegetable oil, or 1 tablespoon (14.8ml) castor oil. For lambs as old as 2 months, carefully give a quarter to half a cup (59.1 – 118.3 ml) of vegetable oil. You may find the dose needs to be repeated two or three times.

Constipation can also be brought on by an external cause and is fairly common in lambs under 1 week. The early manure of a lamb is pasty and can collect and dry into a mass under its tail. This effectively plugs up the lamb, and should be dealt with immediately or else the lamb will die. To remove the manure plugs clean off the mass with a damp rag or such like, trim off some of the wool if necessary, disinfect the area if it is irritated and oil it lightly to prevent manure sticking. Lambs should be checked frequently.

If your lambs are born in the season of flystrike, these manure plugs are targeted by flies.

It is easier to keep your eye on the ewe and her lamb if they are kept in a pen for the first 3 days, and it is also easier to inspect them for any other possible problems.

It has been known, but is rare, for a lamb to be born without an anus. It is usually only after the first few days when the abdomen becomes distended, and discomfort is observed that this condition becomes apparent. Call your vet immediately so he can save the lamb by surgery.      



Entropion:
It is not uncommon that when a lamb of a wooly faced breed is born, its lower or sometimes upper eyelid, or even both may be rolled inward and this is called entropion and is a hereditary defect, it can also occur in other breeds.
 
Should this occur then the eyelashes chafe the eyeball and cause it to constantly water, and this invites infection and can even cause blindness. Do not keep this lamb for breeding.

If your flock is that of a wooly-faced breed then be diligent in inspecting each lamb at birth, because the good news is that the condition can be corrected, this also applies to other breeds. To correct the problem inject 1 ml of penicillin using a 22 gauge needle, just under the skin beneath the lower eye. The penicillin forms a small bulb of fluid that forces the eyelid down into its correct position, and by the time the body has absorbed the fluid, a small piece of scar tissue has formed that keeps the eyelid in position.

Enterotoxemia:
This disease can turn to be fatal quickly, but the good news is there is a vaccination.

To prevent this disease vaccinate your ewes with a multipurpose vaccine during pregnancy, one that lists clostridium. The vaccine should be given to ewes 6 to 8 weeks before they are due to lamb and given a booster dose 2 weeks before lambing. In the following years the ewe will only need a booster shot. By vaccinating your ewe you are also protecting her lamb because colostral antibodies are passed on to it thereby providing immediate and complete protection against all clostridal diseases, and this includes enterotoxemia and tetanus.

The disease is caused by a multiplying of bacteria called Clostridium perfringens, and if you’re your ewes have not been vaccinated it might well strike your biggest and best lambs. This disease is often referred to as the "overeating disease". When lambs are given too much grain and too little roughage – that is hay – or those who have had an abrupt change in their feed ration are most likely to be affected. If a ewe has an abundance of milk then her lamb may get too much and the problem can arise. Earlier on in the book we mentioned the value of a "creep feeder", and we stress its value again, early creep-feeding of both hay and grain helps cut down on the incidence, and mother is prevented access to this food.

Lambs may develop this disease if grain is composed of more than 60% of their ration, or if they are brought up to full feed of one and a half to 2 pounds (0.7 to 0.9 kg) of grain a day too rapidly. 

Older lambs with a heavy load of tapeworms are especially vulnerable. Wet bedding, chills and stress contribute to fluctuating feed intake and this promotes an outbreak.

When a new born lamb suckles for the first time she gets a good dose of colostrum, which contains antibodies from the ewes immune system and absorbed through the lamb's intestines for around the first 24 hours of life. This colostrum protects the lamb for about 10 weeks. Once it has reached the age of 10 weeks it should receive its own vaccination, however it is better to give a priming dose at 9 or 10 weeks followed by a booster about a month later.

The only effective treatment is prevention through vaccination, because lambs with this disease do not live long enough to respond to treatment.

Navel Ill 
This illness is brought on by any number of organisms that gain entrance to the lamb's body through the umbilical cord shortly after birth. These organisms develop into septicemia, which is a serious illness whereby bacteria invade the bloodstream within a few days of onset.

To overcome this problem the umbilical site is treated straight after birth with strong iodine, followed by the nursing of the lamb within the first hour – this first milk is called colostrum and produces and contains antibodies of tremendous value. If the lamb is treated in this way, followed by another application of iodine about 12 hours later it will most likely be prevented from falling victim to navel ill. As in all prevention of illness, clean bedding reduces the chance of infection.

Signs of navel ill are a rise in temperature and the lack of interest to suckle. Also there will be more often than not a thickening around the navel, death follows quickly.

Tetanus is a serious disease than can be caused by bacillus entering through the umbilical site. Certain protection against tetanus is through the vaccination of ewes.

Because navel ill can be caused by several bacterial, a vet should be called to diagnose which one and prescribe the appropriate antibiotics. Treatment can be carried out by IV antibiotics, scour boluses, a tube passed to relieve bloat, and interperitoneal administration of glucose.

Pneumonia:
Pneumonia causes the death of more lambs than any other disease and has been responsible for a considerable percentage of lamb deaths in some flocks.

Pneumonia is preventable through proper management.

It is brought about by drafts in cold, damp quarters, by using a heat lamp then directly turning lambs out into the cold, and by exposure to infectious agents. This type of pneumonia is caused by either bacteria or viruses. 

In a lambing barn there must be adequate ventilation to avoid the build up of ammonia, and stagnant air, but make sure the lambs are not subject to drafts. Open-sided barns with burlap (jute or hemp) bags or windbreak material prevent drafts. Do not use heat lamps more than is necessary, and make sure lambing pens "jugs" have solid bottoms to prevent floor drafts on the newly born lamb.

If pneumonia is a problem that keeps cropping up in your young lambs, it is a good idea to see if they are getting adequate amounts of selenium and vitamin E, as marginal levels result in immuno-supression and increased susceptibility to infection.

Polio:
Polio is not an infectious disease in either humans or sheep.

The signs of polio are blindness, depression, lack of coordination, extreme salivation coma and death. It is related to diet.

Sheep that have been moved from severely overgrazed pastures onto lush pastures are likely candidates, although the reason for this is not yet understood.

Research reveals that the disease is caused by an acute thiamine – that is vitamin B1 - deficiency, and that ruminal contents contain high levels of an enzyme that destroys thiamine.

In the early stages, treatment with 0.5 gram thiamine hydrochloride stimulates a rapid recovery, this treatment is the repeated at 2 day intervals as necessary. Once a lamb has recovered from polio it will not contract it again if the diet remains consistent.

Scours – diarrhea:
Sours in newborn lambs can be serious, and has many causes. Several kinds of bacteria and also some types of virus, and overeating all causes for diarrhea.

If this is your first lambing season you may not know what a lamb's normal feces should look like during the first few days of life. The following points might help you to catch the problem early on before it becomes serious.

1. The first day a lamb should pass a tarry substance that blocks the anus of a fetus, this is called Meconium. It usually passes quickly after a new born lamb nurses for the first time. However, there are times when it does not, and the outcome is constipation which has been discussed in a previous section of this chapter.
2. After this has been passed, the manure is yellow and pasty for about 2 days.
3. Thereafter it begins to take the color of regular sheep feces and begins to firm up. When a lamb reaches a week or 10 days it starts to pass pelleted manure.

Yellow scours:
One of the types of scours is what is called "yellow scours". It is the least serious type of diarrhea, but should not be left unchecked because it can have deadly consequences. Yellow scours can be confusing to a new shepherd, but remember a lamb's normal yellow feces are pasty and a pale yellow color and lasts for just the first day or two, whereas the identification of yellow scours feces is that it is runny having a greenish tinge.

Yellow scours is most likely to occur on account of overfeeding. It is a common problem with bottle-fed lambs, but can also occur in a strong lamb nursing from the plentiful supply of milk from its mother.

(If you are using a milk replacer for bottle feeding, be sure to purchase a good quality product that is made specifically for lambs and labeled as such. Its prime ingredient should be milk – many cheap milk replacers use soybeans etc, and these are a very poor substitute.)

If you are bottle-feeding, and have a problem, then substitute a day's feeding with oral electrolytes and no milk. You can make our own electrolyte solution as follows:
2 pints (1 liter) water
2 ounces (59.1 ml) dextrose (corn syrup)
Half teaspoon (2.5 ml) salt
Quarter teaspoon (1.2 ml) bicarbonate of soda.
.
Mix all the ingredients together and give the solution for 1 to 2 days. Thereafter return to milk feeding, but in smaller quantities than before. For scours that are not caused by bacteria, it is helpful to give a few ounces of aloe vera juice as this will help the digestive system return to normal. 

On the second day, if the feces of a bottle fed lamb is returning to a normal consistency you can let the lamb begin feeding on milk again, however, dilute the lamb's normal ration by giving 50% milk and 50% water. Scours that have been brought about from overeating should resolve by the third day, and thereafter you can return to full-strength milk or replacer.
   
Tetanus:
There is no known cure for tetanus. The good news is there is a vaccination. If ewes have not received a booster of Covexin 8 or a similar product, you should give them 300 to 500 units of tetanus antitoxin at the time of docking or castration. The antitoxin protects lambs for about 2 weeks while wound heal.

Tetanus can occur after tail docking and castration.

Urinary Calculli:
This is a problem that affects baby rams over 1 month old, no matter whether they have been castrated or not. What can happen is the salts normally excreted in their urine can form urinary calculi which are either stones or water belly. These calculi may lodge themselves in the kidney, bladder or urethra.

If a lamb has this problem it will kick at its stomach, stand with its back arched, switch its tail, strain to urinate, or dribble urine and there may be blood in it. The blockage of the urinary tract causes pain, colic, and eventually rupture of the urinary system in to body cavity, and death follows. If a lamb is able to pass the stone it may recover. 

If you see a lamb that appears to be straining but unable to urinate, put it on a dry floor for a couple of hours this way you will be able to tell if the lamb has passed urine during this time. Most veterinarians are of the opinion that the blockage is at the outer end of the urethra. If you can feel the stone right at the end you may be able to dislodge it with gentle pressure. You will know if the passage has been cleared on account of urine that spurts out. It is important to stop the flow two or three times because the bladder can rupture if emptied too quickly. Sometimes manipulation of a small catheter tube will dislodge the stone. If the stone refused to be dislodge, a vet may give it a muscle relaxer with a dilating action that allows the calculi to pass, or he may remove the stone surgically.

Causes of this disease can be:
1. Low water intake due to cold weather, or water with an unpleasant taste to lambs. Lambs always need fresh warm water during cold weather. Add salt to the ration and keep both salt and fresh water in the creep. Increasing salt produces more volume of urine, and decreases the incidence of stones. Sheep that do not have access to salt do not drink sufficient water, especially in cold weather.

2. Feed such as beet pulp, wheat bran, and corn fodder that has excessive phosphorus and potassium but is low in vitamin A is another culprit. If you have been feeding this type of feed correct it by adding 1 or 2% ground limestone or dicalcium phosphate to make the calcium phosphate ration approximately 2:1.

3. Crops grown with the use of a heavy fertilizer with high nitrate content is also another culprit. When crops have been treated with a heavy fertilizer it interferes with the carotene roughage that produces vitamin A. When vitamin A is added to the lamb's ration it will counteract this problem.

4. Hard water is yet another culprit. This can be corrected by adding feed grade ammonium chloride to the ration, approximately one fifth of an ounce (6.1 ml) per head per day. This salt is harmless and is found in some pelleted feeds.

5. Do not feed with just pelleted feed. This disease rarely develops in lambs who receive 20% alfalfa.

6. Hormonal changes that occur when ram lambs are castrated at less than 4 weeks of age is another culprit. The absence of testosterone after castration keeps the urethra from growing to its maximum diameter. If you experience a persistent problem with ram lambs that have been castrated before reaching sexual maturity, try castrating after 6 weeks.

7. The risk of this disease can come from feeding sorghum based rations, cottonseed meal and milo. Corn and soybean meal are less apt to cause problems.

White Muscle Disease:
White muscle disease is also called "stiff lamb" and is caused by the lack of Selenium. If the soil is deficient in Selenium then your hay will also be deficient. If selenium lacking hay is fed to ewes after the third month of pregnancy or during lactation you may have a problem unless it is well supplemented by whole-grain wheat and/or mineralized salt with selenium in it, the supplement should also have vitamin E. To put your mind at rest and save lambs, have your soil tested for selenium deficiency.

The good news is that there are both oral and Injectable products available and are given to the ewe 2 or 4 weeks before lambing i.e., when you give the second vaccination against tetanus and enterotoxemia.

Signs of White Muscle disease include, difficultly getting up and walking, and gradual paralysis of the muscle. Even though lambs can be treated, once muscle changes occur they cannot be reversed. However, many small, weak lambs or lambs with a stiff neck at birth do respond to treatment with selenium.



CHAPTER 9
BREEDING


The best time for lambing various greatly accordingly to your geographical area when good pasture is available, suitable weather conditions, targeted lamb markets and such like. Examine your priorities and plan to breed around 5 months before you want your lambs to be born.

If you want to minimize the cost of labor or the cost of hay or grain, then your lambing time should be timed to take advantage of new pasture growth.

If you live in a part of the world that has moderate winters and hot summers, you may choose to bred in the autumn or early winter to maximize weight gain on account of the fact that you can expect poor weight gain for lambs born in hot temperatures. The key to lambing depends on your climate.


Reproductive Functions:
Not all ewes conform to the rules, and therefore the following is general:
1. First estrus: When a lamb reaches at least 6 months of age and weighs two-thirds of the adult weight the first estrus occurs. However, there are breeds known for coming into estrus as early as 4 to 5 months of age.

2. Length of estrous cycle: This ranges between 14 to 19 days between cycles, however, 17 days is the average. If all your ewes have been put with a ram for 34 days, they should have had two estrous cycles in which to breed.

3. Length of being on heat: On average it s 30 hours, but it can range anywhere from 3 to 73 hours.

4.Ovulation: Ovulation takes places 28 hours after the start of the estrous cycle.

5. Egg fertilization: The time and egg remains capable of being fertilized is between 12 and 24 hours.

FEEDING CHART FOR PREGNANT EWES
                           
                            1st 2/3rd of          Last 1/3rd          1st 10 weeks          Last 14 weeks      Rams
                            Of gestation       of gestation       of lactation            of lactation           small flock

Dry matter lb/k
Per 100lb body
Weight                2.5 (1.136 k)     3.5 (1.59 k)        4.2 (1.91 k)            3.5 (1.59 k)          3.5 (1.59 k)

Crude protein % 8.0                     8.2                     8.4                         8.2                       7.6

Crude protein lb
Per 100 lb of
Body weight        0.2  (0.09k)       0.29 9 (0.13k)   0.35 (0.16k)            0.29 (0.13k)        0.27 (0.12 k)

*TDN  %              50                     52                     58                          52                        55

TDN lb per
100 lb of
Body weight lb    1.25 (0.57k)     1.82 (0.83 k)      2.44 (1.11 k)         1.82 (0.83 k)        1.93 (0.88 k)

Energy Mcal
Per lb 
Of feed                1.0 (0.45k)       1.1 (0.50 k)         1.2 (0.55 k)         1.1 (0.50 k)           1.1 (0.55 k)

Calcium %           0.24                 0.23                    0.28                    0.25                       0.18

Phosphorous %   0.19                0.17                     0.21                    0.19                       0.16

*TDN – total daily nutrients
Caution:  Do not feed your sheep feed formulas or mineral mixtures that are NOT SPECIFICALLY recommended for sheep. The amounts of some trace minerals i.e. copper, that are in the feed for other species of livestock may be toxic to sheep  


HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY BREED YOUR EWES:
Earlier, we touched, in brief, some of the factors that you will want to take into account for your breeding schedule, the following are additional:

1. Daylight hours: All sheep are photosensitive, and this means that reproductive activity is affected by the length of daylight. In the autumn and winter reproductive activity is highest and ewes are able to be bred in these seasons. There are some ewes that can be bred year round, but their ovulation rate falls during the spring and summer months, and this can mean that if you breed them out of season, you may have fewer lambs.

2. Weather: During hot weather, rams may become temporarily infertile, and ewes that have been successfully bred run the risk of miscarrying.

3. Age: On average ewe lambs generally begin cycling later than mature ewes, but don't have such a strong heat, neither do they release as many eggs per ovulation. Reproductive activity may be less in older ewes.

4. Nutrition: Feeding ewes additional feed for 2 to 3 weeks before breeding, or increasing the level of nutrition, increases a ewe's reproductive activity.

5.Health: When ewes and rams are in good health, more lambs are conceived and born with a greater rate of survival.

Early and late lambing:
Early Lambing
The advantages of early lambing include:

Fewer parasites on early grass pastures.

Ewe lambs born early are more likely to breed as lambs.

If early lambs are fed in a creep-feed, they can be sold in late spring, and you can expect a better profit.

All your lambs are born by the time of the best spring grass.

Less risk of problems with flies during times of docking and castration.

Late lambing
The advantage of late lambing include:  

Shearing ewes is easier before lambing

Severe weather conditions are avoided.

Less risk of lambs being chilled during mild weather.

Ewes can lamb out on the pasture.

Less grain is required for lambs because you have sufficient pasture.

THE RAM
Select the best ram you can, because he contributes to the genetics of all your lambs.

A 2 year old ram that is well grown that was one of either twins or triplets is highly desirable. This is because his daughters will inherit a genetic inclination toward having twins, even more so if their mothers had the same inclination. A ram also greatly influences other traits, such as conformation and fleece type.

If your ram is young do not leave him with the flock all day. Conserve his energy and separate him from the ewes for several hours during the day when he can take time to feed, and rest.

A good ram can service between 25 to 30 ewes. A well nourished ram can, on a small flock, service your ewes for up to 6 years, but remember, be careful of inbreeding you do not want him to breed his daughters, granddaughters and so on. If however, your flock is on an open range the ability will be restricted for a couple of years.

Consider leasing a ram if your flock is small.

Artificial Insemination (AI):
You may wish to consider artificial insemination if your flock is small. It must be done by a trained vet or a specially trained AI technician. The advantage of this method is you do not have the expense of buying or feeding a ram, and you increase the genetic diversity.

All ewes you plan to inseminate must be in good health and not stressed out. The insemination needs to be synchronized with the estrous cycle, and for this reason, ewes are often treated with hormones in order that they will all come into heat at the same time. 

Whereas AI is extensively used for cattle, it is only just catching on with sheep. The reason for this is that the use of vaginal insemination has not had good results. The intrauterine method has a high rate of fertilization, but it is expensive. 

Preparation of the Ram:
If you decide to buy a ram or borrow one, it is best to get it well in advance of the breeding season so he can feel at home. The minimum time before you put him with your ewes is a week or two. Keep him away from the ewes and feed him on good feed and pasture, but remember the importance of introducing the feed gradually when you first get him home. Also bear in mind that if a ram is overweight it lowers his potency and efficiency, so keep him in good health and condition.

During the breeding season, feed the ram around 1 pound (0.5 kg) of grain a day because there is the possibility he may be too preoccupied with the ewes to allow him to graze sufficiently. Feeding the grain should continue throughout the breeding season and a short time afterward so he can regain his strength.

There are two approaches as to what to do with a ram after the ewes are bred. The first approach is to remove him from the flock as soon as breeding is complete, and keep him separated until the next breeding season comes around. The second approach is to leave him with the flock for most of the year. The approach you decide to take will depend on your breed of sheep and your management target.

You should consider the following:
1. Is it possible to breed your sheep at a very young age? If this is possible then he could breed his daughters before you want them bred. 
2. Is your breed of sheep one that can be bred out of season? If this is the case, he may rebreed ewes at a time when you do not want them to breed. But this can be an advantage if you want your lambs to be born all throughout the year.
3. Do you have a facility in which he can be easily kept in separation for long periods, and do you want to deal with a separated ram?

Make sure your ram has a cool, shady place to escape from the heat of the summer sun, because if his body temperature becomes elevated (and this applies to infection as well) it can cause infertility. The quality of semen is affected at 80 degrees Fahrenheit (26.7 Celsius) and seriously damaged at 90 degrees farhenheit (32.2 Celsius). If his temperature is as such it may leave him infertile for weeks and then your lambing program will not be as scheduled.

If you happen to live in a part of the world that has a very hot climate, shear his scrotum just before the commencement of the hot weather and let him run on pasture in the evening, night or in the early morning, and keep him penned in a cool place with an adequate suppy of fresh water during the heat of the afternoon.

High humidity coupled with high temperature can also decrease his sex drive.

Generally speaking, in the west, August is the beginning of the breeding season which takes place in January. However, many breeds won't begin to breed until September. If your plan is to breed your lambs later on in the spring then delay turning your ram amongst your ewes.

The gestation period is 5 months, that is, between 148 – 152 days, so count back from your desired date to determine the best date to introduce the ram.

Ewes come into heat for about 28 hours, with around 16 to 19 days between cycles. So 51 to 60 days with a ram should breed all your ewes and this also applies to yearlings that come into heat later.

When ewes are on heat, they produce a smell that lets a ram know they are ready. There are some breeds of rams that have a keener sense of smell than others in their ability to detect the estrus cycle.

Ewes and Rams at breeding time:
Either the presence or the scent of a ram, has a great effect on estrous activity of ewes, however, with a ram that is constantly with ewes the stimulus is not so pronounced as it would be if he is put in a separate pasture two weeks before you intend to breed. 

If you have more than one ram you will notice that one becomes dominant, and when they have been separated for any length of time start fighting, head butting to establish dominance. Once the social order is established they know their place.

It has been observed that the sexual performance of a dominant ram is greater than that of the other rams. However, there is the risk that the dominant ram might be infertile and as a result the flock suffers and this is why it is beneficial to use a marking harness.

Ram marking harness:
To enable you to know whether or not a ewe has been bred, a marking harness is very useful. The marking harness is attached to the chest of the ram and has a marking crayon. When he mates with a ewe, a distinctive mark is left on the ewe. Once you notice the mark on a ewe, note the date, by doing so you will be able to determine when she will lamb. 

For the first 16 days of the breeding period use one color, thereafter change the color of the crayon 16 days later and so on throughout the breeding season. If you happen to notice that a ewe has two colors, then this is an indication that the first time she was bred was not successful. If all the ewes have double marking, then the ram is sterile, however, you must remember that it can be just temporary infertility, especially if the weather was extremely hot just before you introduced him to the flock. To be on the safe side, introduce another ram into the flock just in case he is permanently sterile.

If you are unable to get hold of a marking harness, there is another technique in which you daub marking paint on the ram's lower chest. To do this mix marking paint into a paste with lubricating oil, vegetable shortening call also be used. Make sure that the only paint you use is one that will wash out of the fleece. This applies to crayons as well – make sure they are labeled for wool.

Raising your own ram:
There are advantages of raising your own ram, one of which is that you can see what he would be like at market age if he were being sold for meat. However, if the ram is older, you have the difficulty in telling how he looked as a lamb, or how his offspring will look when they reach market age.

The way in which rams are raised can have an effect on their future sexual performance. Studies show that rams weaned in an all male group show lower levels of sexual performance in later life. And remember, that if a dominant ram happens to have low fertility, then there is the possibility that many of your ewes will be unbred.

Recurrent ram selection:
If your goal is to raise lambs for meat, you could try a system called "recurrent selection of ram lambs". This entails keeping the fastest growing ram lambs. 

Recurrent selection of ram lambs is a way of improving the potential for fast growth in your lamb herd. It involves changing rams fairly frequently, which means you dispose of a 2 or 3 year old ram whose meat is less tender and therefore less marketable, but if he is valuable, you can most likely sell, or trade him to other farmers for breeding purposes.


A Battering Ram:
There are rams that have earned the rightful name of "Battering Rams". These rams can inflict serious, sometimes permanent or crippling injuries.

When you are raising a ram lamb, do not pet him or handle him unnecessarily, and never pat him on top of his head because this encourages him to butt. Needless to say, do not let children play with him, even when he is small, because they can make him playful and his playfulness can become dangerous. The more he becomes familiar with humans, the more apt he will be to butting, but if he is distanced from them or even a little afraid there is less likelihood of this problem.

A ram butts from the top of his head, not from his forehead, therefore when you lead a ram keep one hand under his chin because this will keep him from getting his head down into a butting position. If you have a ram prone to butting, then try the water cure, which is having a bucket of water at hand, in readiness to throw the water at his head. After a few throwings, or use of a water-squirter, or a syringe loaded with water he should get the message. If he still does not get the message add a bit of vinegar to the water as this can be more effective.

If your ram is valuable to your flock and you want to keep him, you can hood him so that he can only see a little downward and backward. During this time he must be kept separately from other rams, because he is quite helpless.

A new ram introduced to your ram will cause a disturbance and they will fight. This also applies to rams that know each other if they have been separated for a period of time. Never pen a smaller, younger ram with a larger, dominant one.

When a ram is about the charge at another ram, (or human) he will back up and then at full pace charge with its head down. Two strong rams, that are both very determined, will continue to butt each other until their heads bleed and one falls to its knees and has a hard time getting up. Occasionally, rams have been known to kill one another. The good news is that once the dominance has been determined, they may be playful, but won't fight again unless they are separated and then reunited.

As a matter of preventing fighting with the possibility of serious injury, they can be put together in a small pen for a few days at first. In a confined area, there is no room for them to back up far enough to charge and do any damage.

In the event that you do not have a pen available you can try the following:

1. Use a ram shield. A ram shield is a piece of leather placed over the ram's face that inhibits front vision. They are not expensive, and are effective in stopping a butting ram without interfering in any of his other functions.
   
2. Traditional European farms have used hobbling, a yoke or put clogs on them to prevent problems.
Hobbling a ram is done by fastening the ends of a broad leather strap to a foreleg and a hind leg, just above the pastern joint which is from the fetlock to the top of the hoof, thereby leaving the legs at about the natural distance apart. This discourages rams from butting, because they are unable to charge from any distance, and little damage can be done if they can't run! What may happen is that they stand close to one another and push each other around, but there will be no serious results. Another advantage of hobbling is that it prevents them from jumping fences which rams are known to do when ewes are in an adjoining pasture. Should you hobble a ram check it at frequent intervals so they do not become entangled.

3. Yoking is the fastening of two rams together, 2 or 3 feet (0.6 or 0.9 m) apart. Bows or straps are placed around their necks, and fastened to a light board, such as a 2 inch by 2 inch (5.1 cm x 7.6 cm) piece of wood.  Once again, check to ensure rams do not become entangled.

4. Clogging. To clog, fasten a piece of wood to one foreleg with a leather strap. This will slow down and discourage both fighting and fence jumping.

EWES
To be a successful breeder, you need to be prepared.

1. Get your ewes, and of course your ram, tested for worms, and worm as necessary.
2. Check for ticks and other problems.
3. Trim away any wool tags from around the tail.
4. Trim their feet – this is because they will carry weight during pregnancy, good feet are important.

By taking care now, you reduce your chances for serious problems that may develop later on. For example, if you eliminate ticks before lambing, they will not be passed on to your lambs and you will not have to treat for ticks again.

Seventeen days before you intend to start breeding, put your ram in a pasture next to the ewes, but make sure you have a solid fence between them! As we mentioned earlier, the smell and sound of a ram in the next field can bring ewes on heat earlier.

If you have a castrated ram, he is useful too as he can be used to stimulate the onset of estrus in a flock. Turn him out with the ewes about 3 weeks before breeding.

The old proverb says, "Absence makes the heart grow fonder", by keeping the ram away from the ewes – never in a pen next to the ewes - before it is time to breed, the sudden contact when you let him come into contact excites the ewes!

Vaccination:
The most important vaccination to both ewes and their lambs is a multi-purpose vaccine effective against the Clostridium species of bacteria. Ewes will need to be vaccinated twice during the first year with the first shot being given as early as breeding time, or as late as 6 to 8 weeks before lambing. The second shot, which is the booster is then 2 weeks prior to the expected lambing date for the flock. As for lambing in the following year they will only require a booster that is given 2 weeks before lambing. By doing this the ewes and also the lambs are protected; the lambs are protected for about 10 weeks of age, (which is the most vulnerable time) against all clostridial diseases including tetanus.

A vaccination against Chlamydia, will prevent enzootic abortion and vibriosis. The vaccination is given between 2 weeks and 1 month before breeding.

Vaccinate against some forms of pneumonia and other respiratory viruses. This vaccination is administered 30 days or less before lambing.

Additional Feed – flushing:
Flushing, means increase the plan of nutrition so that they have a slight weight gain  in preparation for breeding. If, however, your ewes are fat to begin with it is no so effective and fat ewes may develop breeding problems. If you decide to breed ewe lambs do not use the flushing program.

Flushing is done by supplementing the regular diet with grain, or better pasture, depending upon the time of year you are breeding. It produces better results when the program is started 17 days prior introducing ewes to the ram and is continued, tapering off gradually for about 30 days.

By doing this a ewe's system is physically better for breeding, and it also has the advantage of synchronizing the ewes by bringing them into heat around the same time, rather than having a long, strung-out lambing season.

Another advantage is that flushing also contributes to a ewe having twins, this is because the ewe that is better nourished is more likely to drop two ova.

Your ewes will most probably come into heat once during the 17 days of flushing, especially if you have the ram in an adjacent pasture. It is during the second heat, they have a greater number of eggs and are more likely to have twins.

The supplement can be started with a quarter of a pound (0.1 kg) of grain per ewe a day, and gradually build up to half or three-quarters of a pound (0.2 or 0.3 kg) each in the first week. This is then continued in the same quantity for 17 days, then gradually tapered off.

Ewes should not be pastured on red clover. This is because it contains estrogen and lowers lambing percentages. Other clovers and alfalfa may have a similar effect, though it tends to be weaker in these legumes.

Ewe lambs:
Flushing should not be applied to ewe lambs if you decide to breed them, this is because they are not yet fully grown at lambing time. 

It is better not breed ewe lambs until a month or so after you commence breeding mature ewes. The season for breeding ewe lambs is shorter than mature ewes. There are some breeds such as Rambouillet that mature slowly whereas other breeds such as Finnsheep, Polypay and Romanov are much faster.

Farmers are of the opinion that ewes that were bred when they were lambs are the most promising, on account of their early maturity and this is the key to prolific lambing.

Before a ewe lamb is bred it should weigh between 85 to 100 pounds (38.6 – 45.4 kg), otherwise their growth later on will be slightly stunted in comparison to those who were not bred. If a ewe lamb is not well fed, their reproductive life is shorter, not only that, unless they are given a mineral supplement such as trace mineralized salt they will develop problems with their teeth.

If replacement ewes are being selected choose them for their ability to breed as lambs, and the flock will improve in the capacity of ewe lamb breeding. When choosing your replacement ewes, select them from among your twin ewes. When it comes to breeding turn the twin ewes in with a ram wearing a marking harness. The ones that are marked are the ones to keep as you know they have been bred, the rest you can sell.

Culling:
By keeping your best lamb ewes, and replacing mature ewes over time, your profits will increase. To know which animals to cull, you must keep a record with a "personal profile".

To identify your flock have them ear tagged with a number, even if you know them individually. 

Record the following information in your books:
1. Age
2. Lambing record, including season and multiple births
3. Rejected lambs
4. Milking ability
5. Lamb growth
6. Prolapses
7. Inverted eyelashes
8. Foot problems
9. Udder abnormalities
10. Illnesses and treatment
11. Wool condition
12. Make sure to include the date

A record with this information will assist you not only to know which to keep but also strengthen your flock,

When the time comes to remove an animal for your flock first check your records, then inspect its teeth, udders and feet. Those that match the following should be culled:
1. Ewes with abnormal/defective udders
2. Ewes with missing teeth
3. Animals that limp and do not respond to regular foot trimming and footbaths
4. Ewes that produce insufficient milk
5. Ewes that have slow-growth lambs.
6. Rams you do not want to sire their own daughters – these can be sold too or exchanged with another shepherd's ram.

Practicality is the another key to profitability. Even if you have become attached to a certain lamb that you raised by hand, it is not a viable choice for breeding stock.

FEEDS DURING BREEDING
We mentioned earlier the desirability of flushing a ewe before and just after breeding, but it must be remembered not to overfeed ewes during the early months of pregnancy because overfeeding can cause ewes to gain excessive weight that can lead to difficulty lambing.

Provide an adequate feeder with a space that is approximately 20 – 24 inches (50.8 – 61 cm) per ewe. In this way each ewe has access to her share of feed. If the feeder is on the small size, what will happen is the more timid or older ewes will get pushed out and they won't get their fair share. A mineral-salt mix containing selenium can make it unnecessary to inject selenium prior to lambing and thereby protect lams from white muscle disease. Caution, never use a mineral mix formulated for cattle, because of the risk that it is fortified with copper at levels that are toxic to sheep. Check with your vet about the use of mineral-salt mix that contains selenium. 

LAST MONTH BEFORE LAMBING
Now that the last month before lambing has arrived, you will need to give the ewe 4 times as much water as she needed before she became pregnant.

70% of the growth of the unborn lamb takes place during the last 5 – 6 week period, so the feed must have adequate calories and nutritional balance to support growth, do not be tempted to feed bulky, low quality feed because if a ewe cannot consume enough energy to sustain herself and her unborn lamb, and as we mentioned before, she begins to use stored body fat to provide this energy - this can lead to pregnancy toxemia. Poor energy supplementation can also cause low blood sugar – that is hypoglycemia – the signs of which are similar to pregnancy toxemia. 

A good grain mix:
1/3rd oats
1/3rd shelled corn
1/3 wheat – as it contains selenium.

Barley is also a good feed. Grain rations can be supplemented to 12 – 15% protein content with soybean meal or another protein source. 

Grain and hay should be given on a regular schedule to avoid the risk of pregnancy diseases such as enterotoxemia brought on by erratic eating. Generally speaking, 1 pound (0.5 kg) of grain a day – more for larger ewes – is a good guideline.

As a reminder, during these last few weeks be on the look-out for ewes with droopy eyes, ewes that go off their feed, stand around in a daze, show weakness in their legs, grind their teeth or have rapid breathing, or have breath that has a distinctive odor. If they are treated early recovery is likely.

Exercise and sunlight are valuable to pregnant ewes. If ewes are confined and lack exercise this can lead to problems. A good way to get them to exercise is to scatter the hay around in various clean parts of the pasture once a day.

The effect improper feeding has in late pregnancy:
Poor feeding during the last 4 weeks, and in the case of ewes that are expecting twins, the last 5 to 6 weeks, leads to:
 
1. Low birth weight
2. Low fat reserve in new born lambs – this leads to a higher mortality rate as they are more susceptible to chills etc.
3. Low wool production when lambs reach adulthood.
4. Increase chances of pregnancy toxemia
5. Premature births
6. Ewes are slower to come into milk, and when it does come there is less.
7. Weakness in a ewe's fleece that cause the fibers to break at the slightest pull, which consequently decreases the value of the wool.

Ketone Test:
A way in which you can be certain that your ewes that are carrying twins or triplets are getting sufficient nutrition is the run a test for ketones in the urine. 

As we mentioned before, ewes that do not get enough feed to meet their energy requirements will use their reserve of body fat. It is then that fat cells are converted into energy, and waste products, called ketones created. Pregnancy disease occurs when the ketones are produced faster than they can be excreted. What happens is they rise to toxic levels in the bloodstream, but this can be easily detected in the urine. You can do the tests yourself with a ketone test kit. Should you discover a ewe is not getting sufficient nutrition you can then separate her and give her the extra attention she needs, in this way underweight or dead lambs and pregnancy toxemia is averted.



CHAPTER 10
LAMBING

The time you awaited is near at hand! Lambing is both hard work but very rewarding, if you choose to lamb in the winter then the work is harder. By the way, if your flock is an all white breed, and much to your surprise you suddenly find you have a black lamb, this will be on account of the recessive gene factor! 

PREPARATION FOR LAMBING
A few weeks before lambing it is very helpful to have already sheared the ewe's crotch and face. 

Shearing:
Ewes can be sheared up to 3 or 4 weeks before lambing if the weather is mild. There are ten good reasons in shearing your ewes before lambing starts.

1. there are no dirty, germ-laden wool tags that lambs might suck when nursing.
2. a clean udder makes it easier for lambs to find teats.
3. during the birth process there are fewer germs around.
4. when assistance is needed it is easier.
5. it is easier to spot a possible prolapse.
6. the ewes appearance is easier for you to predict when she will lamb.
7. the ewe is less likely to lie on her lamb in the pen.
8. shorn ewes take up less space in the barn, and at feeders, as well as in lambing pens.
9. shorn ewes are less likely to sweat in lambing pens and contract pneumonia.
10. shorn ewes won't stay out in cold or bad weather, they will seek shelter and bring their lambs with them.

Crotching:
Crotching is the trimming of wool from the hind legs at the entrance of the vagina and also the udder and a few inches forward of the udder on the stomach. This wool   can be saved, and washed and put to one side for spinning or sold later with the fleece.

Facing:
Facing is the trimming of the wool from the ewe's face. Facing is often done at the same time as crotching. It is very advantageous for sheep with heavy wool around the eyes and checks:
1. it avoids wool blindness,
2. a ewe is better able to watch her lamb.
3. it helps to prevent the accumulation of hay chaff and burrs that would otherwise stick to the wool when she eats hay at the feeder.

TIME TO LAMB
Among the signs that a ewe is ready to give birth is the lamb will drop into position, giving the ewe a sway-back, sunken appearance in front of the hip bones. She will also be restless. If she has been sheared, then the dropping will be more noticeable. She will choose a place where she wants to lamb, and lie down away from the rest of the sheep. Occasionally, she will start pawing at the ground before lying down. If she should lie down too much, without any observable cud chewing, be on the look-out for droopiness that comes with toxemia. Another sign is a full udder.

Ewes approaching their lambing have been known to take lambs to mother from a ewe that has had hers! Feeding habits change just before she is about to give birth, she may refuse grain, or walk away from a feeder and go ahead and deliver her lamb.

Ewes that are having twins or triplets, are large, and start grunting as they get up and down several days before they lamb. The vulva relaxes and can be a little pinker than usual, however, if should not protrude or be red, if it is it could be the beginning of a prolapse.

About 2 days before a ewe goes into labor she may have a mucous discharge, which can be clear or slightly bloody. A mucus discharge can occur for up to a week after lambing. However, if the discharge is yellow or pussy she has an infection and that needs to be treated.

At the onset of early labor, the water bag will appear. It's appearance is like a balloon sticking out of the vulva and is dark, bluish red in color. When she goes into the final stage of labor she will lie down with her nose pointed upwards, strain and grunt. The length of a sheep's labor varies, and age plays a significant role with a first-time ewe most likely taking longer to deliver their lamb than an older ewe.

Equipment and supplies to have on hand during and after lambing:
Clean, warm soapy water
Obstetrical gloves
Antiseptic lubricant
Mineral oil
Lamb puller
Lamb snare cord
Old towels
Heat lamp
Iodine – 7% tincture
Wide-mouth jar, preferably plastic
Blunt scissors or knife
Halter
Head gate
Glucose injection
Baby milk bottle and teat
Stomach tube or human male catheter tube
Rubber ear syringe or 60 ml hypodermic syringe
 
When assistance is needed:
Most lambs are born without assistance and without trouble. In a healthy flock, 95% of the ewes do not need assistance when they lamb. But there are times when a ewe may need help, and when and if you should lend a helping hand or to leave her alone is always a dilemma.

A ewe must be given enough time to deliver her lamb herself, but you should not wait until she has stopped trying. A general guideline is to allow a ewe that has already lambed before to lamb by herself for half an hour to an hour after the water bag breaks, or up to 2 hours of labor. When this time has passed she will most likely need to be assisted. However, if it is the first time a ewe has lambed give her a little longer, around 3 hours.

When a ewe has been in labor for a long time and does not progress, get her up and encourage her to walk. If she is in a small pen (jug) move her out so she can get some exercise.

If a lamb is in the normal birth position, then its front legs and the nose come out first followed by the head, body and hind legs. Should a lamb be in a position other than that delivery will either be assisted by yourself through repositioning, or the help of a vet.

It is not just multiple births that can be positioned other than what is normal, single lambs can also present themselves for delivery in a difficult position. 

What to do:
1. If you do not have a pair of obstetrical gloves, wash your hands and arms thoroughly with warm, soapy water, then swab your hands and wrists with iodine, be sure to have your nails clipped short.
2. Wash the ewe's genital area.
3. Lubricate one hand with antiseptic lubricant, or mineral oil, and slip it in to the pelvic opening, gently.
4. Try to ascertain the position of the lamb – signs of various positions are discussed later (pages 110-113).

If you are new to lambing, ask someone who has experience to lend a helping hand, and watch closely so you will be better able to handle situations.

With your hand inside the birth canal the first thing is to try to identify the lamb's legs and position. Make sure that the legs you are feeling all belong to the same lamb because with twin births it is easy to get their legs mixed up.

To identify which legs are which, the best way is to check and feel the differences between its front and back legs. The front legs are muscular above the knees and bend at the knees in the same way that the foot joint bends, with the knuckle pointing forward. The hind legs have a prominent tendon and bend the opposite way from the back foot. The hind legs also have a sharper knuckle. The legs should be aligned so that the tops of the legs are on top. Should the legs be bottom side-up, then the lamb is upside down in the womb and needs to be turned.

If you have to reposition a lamb, be careful not to break the umbilical cord. Should it break, the lamb will attempt to breathe, and will suck amniotic fluid into its lungs, when this happens they do not survive and die before birth. Occasionally one will survive but it will suffer from pneumonia and die a day or so later.

If you have to help the ewe, time your pulling to coincide with the ewe's labor contractions. If she is tired and stopped trying, pull on the lamb's legs, this usually starts her off again. 

Ringwomb:
This is caused by the failure of the cervix to properly dilate, and is one of the most common causes for problems during lambing. 

In a normal birth, the cervix softens and dilates concurrently with the uterine contractions. In ringwomb the contractions start without softening and dilation of the cervix.

There are several possible causes for this problem, including infection, hypocalcaemia, and high concentrations of estrogenic compounds in feeds.

If a ewe has ringwomb call your vet who will deliver the lamb by cesarean section. If a vet is not available, you can help by trying gently to stretch the cervix manually with your fingers.

LAMB POSITIONS
As we mentioned earlier, the good news is that the majority of lambs are born without any trouble, and do not require any help. The following first explains the characteristics of a normal birth, followed by various problems that you most likely will not encounter, but need to be aware of just in case.

Normal birth:
In a normal birth the nose and both front feet present themselves first, and the lamb's back is toward the ewe's back. About half an hour to an hour after the ewe has passed the water bag, the lamb should start to appear. This is the most common position, and the ewe will not need your help unless the lamb is large or has a large head or shoulders which is our next subject for discussion.

Treatment of the umbilical cord:
This will require a 7% tincture of iodine solution, a small, wide-mouthed plastic jar.

1. Snip the umbilical cord to just about 2 inches (5 cm) long using either a sterile blunt pair of scissors or a sterile blunt knife, we stress the word "blunt" because being blunt will reduce the chance of bleeding.
2. Hold the lamb so the remaining umbilical cord hangs into the container containing the iodine solution – make sure the cord is submerged.
3. Press the container against the belly of the lamb.
4. Turn the lamb up so that the entire cord and surround area are covered.

To prevent the risk of bacteria entering via the navel the application of iodine is important and should be applied as soon after birth as possible. The iodine will penetrate the cord and disinfect it. Iodine has a strong smell and if you happened to spill it on the lamb, or have used it excessively it may mask the lamb's natural odor and this may cause the ewe to reject her lamb, because she will not think it is hers.

If the cord is not cut to the proper length, some ewes will try to nibble at it and this can cause injury to the lamb.

After the first application of iodine, treat the lamb again 12 hours later.
 
Large Head or Shoulders:
Even if the lamb is in the right position, the pelvic opening of the ewe may be too small to accommodate a large lamb or one with a large head, or shoulders.

There are times when the shoulders are large and are stopped by the pelvic opening. Should this occur, use a gentle outward and downward pulling action. Pull to the right or the left, so the shoulders go through at more of an angle and ease the situation.

When a ewe has been in labor for a long period, the head may be swollen. Help the ewe by pushing the skin of the vulva back over the head. When the lamb is halfway out – that is past the rib cage – the mother usually delivers the lamb by herself, unless she is too exhausted.

If the lamb's head is larger than normal draw out one leg a little more than the other while working the vulva back past the top of the lamb's head. As soon as the head is through, you can extend the other leg completely and pull out the lamb by its legs and neck. Warning: If you pull both legs out together, the thickest part of the legs comes right beside the head and this makes delivery more difficult for you and the ewe.

If a lamb is large and difficult to deliver, use mineral oil or an antiseptic lubricant. Place a lamb-puller over the lamb's head so that the top of the noose is behind the ears and the bottom of the snare is in the lamb's mouth, in this way the head is kept from slipping backward or sideways while you work. Now that this has been done, gently pull from side to side – this is more beneficial than only pulling outward and downward. Gently pull on the head as well as the legs because this is better than pulling on the legs alone.

Hips that get stuck:
Some ewes are nervous, especially if it is their first lamb, and she may need a little help if her lamb's hips get stuck. Pull gently on the lamb and swing it a bit from one side to the other. If this does not make it slip out easily, give it about a quarter turn while pulling. The likelihood of this occurring is when a small ewe gives birth to a large lamb.

Head coming out before one or both legs:
If this happens, then either one or both of the lamb's legs are bent backward.

One leg bent back: To adjust the position of a leg that is bent back so that the lamb is in the normal birth position, attach a snare-cord, or a lamb-puller, behind the ears and inside the mouth and the second cord to the one leg that is already protruding. Having done this push the head and the protruding leg back far enough to enable you to bring the retained leg forward so you can pull the lamb out in the normal birth position. Pay special attention to the cord on the head, because the head may drop out of the pelvic girdle, and this will make it difficult to get it back in again.

Get the ewe to lay on the side that has the leg out so that the turned-back leg is on top, this should make it a little easier to get the turned-back let into the correct position. Having accomplished this and both legs are now straightened out, the birthing won't take long.

Two legs bent back: In this case to correct the position, attach the lamb-puller onto the head. Try to bring one leg down into position, then the other, be careful not to push the head back any farther than necessary. Attach a noose of cord onto each leg as you get them out then pull the lamb.

Should you be unable to get your hand pass the head to reach the legs, raise the ewe's hind end, with anything that can be used as a prop, such as a bale of hay etc. , this will give you more space to work. 

Now, with the snare over the lamb's head, push the head back until you are able to reach past it and then bring the front legs forward, one at a time. Then put the ewe back into the normal reclining position, and start the head and legs through the pelvic arch and gently pull downwards and the lamb is on its way.

Both legs protrude, but the head is turned back:
This is one of the most difficult situations to deal with. More often than not, a vet is called into perform a cesarean section. 

The position of the head can be turned back to one side along the lamb's body, or else down between its front legs. If the front legs are showing, slip a noose of heavy cord over each front leg, then push the lamb back until there is enough room to insert your clean, lubricated hand and feel for the position of its head. Having located the head, bring it forward into its normal position. Now pull gently in a downward direction on the legs, and guide the head so that it passes through the opening of the pelvic cavity at the same time that the feet emerge outside.

Should the head refuse to come out easily, it is either too large or the lamb may be turned on its back with its back down toward the ewe's stomach. With the cords still attached to the legs, you may have to push it back in again and gently give it a half turn so that the lamb's legs are pointing down in the normal position. 

If you experience difficulty in getting a grip on its slippery head to bring it into position, try to get a cord-noose over its lower jaw. Insert your hand with the noose over your fingers, then slip it off onto the chin, be very careful not to catch part of the ewe's inners when doing this because it can tear tissues. By pulling on the noose that you placed over the chin, you can guide the head into position with greater ease.

Hind feet coming out first:
When this occurs, pull gently, because the lamb might get stuck when it is halfway out. If this should happen, swing the lamb from side to side while pulling, until the ribs are out, and then pull it out quickly.

Sometimes it is easier on the lamb to twist it a half turn, so that its back is toward the ewe's stomach, or rotate it a quarter turn while it is being pulled out.

Pulling the lamb out quickly is of utmost importance, because the umbilical cord becomes pinched once the lamb is half way out, and this means that the lamb will inhale mucus if its tries to breathe. As the nose appears, the mucus covering it must be immediately wipe away to prevent suffocation.

Breech Birth:
When the lamb is presented backward, with its tail toward the pelvic opening and the hind legs pointed away from the pelvic opening, it is a breech position.

In a situation such as this, most often it is easier to get the lamb into position for delivery with its back feet coming out first, however, speed is important once you have got it started because the umbilical cord either breaks or becomes restricted and this may cause the lamb to suffocate in the mucus. Immediately you see it's nose emerge wipe it clean.

To deliver a lamb in the breech position:
1. Raise the ewe's hind legs slightly, by using a bale of hay or such like.
2. Gently push the lamb forward in the womb.
3. Reach in and slip your hand under the lamb's rear – there will not be much room to move.
4. Take the hind legs, one at a time, flex them, and bring each foot around into the birth canal.

Once you see the legs protruding, gently pull until the rear end appears. Now, grip both the legs and if possible the hindquarters then pull downward – not straight out.

The ewe may be exhausted by now, but it is important to determine whether or not there is another lamb inside to be born. Once the matter is settled, giver her penicillin shot, or insert an antibiotic uterine bolus to prevent the risk of infection.

Lamb lying crosswise:
There are occasionally times when the lamb lies across the pelvic opening, and you can only feel its back. If this happens, push the lamb back a little, and feel which direction is which. In a case such as this it is usually easier for the hind feet to be pulled first, especially if they are closer to the opening. If you do turn it around to deliver in the normal position, the head will have to be pulled around. Should the lamb also be upside down, it will need to be turned a half turn to come out easily.

All four legs coming at once:
When the hind legs can be reached as easily as the front, deliver by the hind legs. This is so you don't have to reposition the head. In the case of it being the front legs, the head must be maneuvered into the correct birth position along with the legs After attaching cords to the legs push back to position the head.

Twins that decide to be born at the same time:
You will know if both of the twins are "competing" to be born at the same time because you will have too many feet at the same time. Try to sort them out, by tying strings to the two front legs of the same lamb and then tracing the legs back the body to make sure it is the same lamb, having done that position the head before pulling. To make enough room for the delivery of the first lamb, push the second one back a little.

Twins, with one coming out backwards:
When twins are coming out together, there is the chance that one, or even both may be reversed in the womb. If is usually easier to pull out the one that is reversed first. However, if both are reversed, then pull the lamb that is closer to the pelvic opening. 
    
WHEN TO CALL THE VETERINARIAN
As we mentioned before, 95 out 100 lambs are born without assistance. If you are new to shepherding and don't know what to do if something does not appear to be going normally, and you feel you need help, call your veterinarian or a more experienced shepherd to give you a helping hand.

If a ewe is obviously in a distressed state and has labored for more than an hour and no progress is evident, or you cannot get the lamb to come into the normal position for delivery – that is the time to call in the veterinarian. When he/she comes, don't be shy to ask as many questions that you can think off – this is the way you learn and gain confidence with how to cope with problems in the future.

In the worse case scenario and the lamb is dead inside the womb, your vet will have to dismember it in order to remove it.

AFTER LAMBING
Sometimes, a first-timer or even a ewe may not do what should come naturally which includes licking her new lamb. When this occurs, take matter into your own hands, and wipe the mucus of its nose, and then quickly place the newborn at the ewe's head - this way she gets to bond, know and recognize the smell of her lamb – and most likely she will start to clean her lamb off. However, if the ewe is exhausted by a difficult labor, you should, after having placed the lamb by her head, and keeping it in sight of the ewe, (if you don't keep the lamb in the sight of the ewe the bonding may not work) help to dry off the lamb with old towels so that the lamb doesn't chill from being wet for too long. It you decide to use a heat lamp use it with care, because the lamb can become chilled when it is removed and this can predispose it to pneumonia.

If a lamb has difficulty breathing on account of the excess mucus lodged in throat and lungs you will need to give it a quick swing. To do this, firmly grasp it by the hind legs and swing it sharply in an arch several times, but make sure there is nothing in the way that could hit the lamb's head when you do this. In this way the centrifugal force will expel the mucus.

With respect to the cutting of the umbilical cord, make sure it is cut about 2 inches (5 cm) long with a blunt pair of scissors or a blunt knife. If it is left too long, then ewes have been known to nibble at it and this can cause infection.

Feeding of lambs:
There are times when a lamb does not do what should come naturally. If the udder or teats have become soiled with manure or mud the udder/teats need to be swabbed off. To do this use a weak chlorine bleach solution before the lamb nurses, by doing this intestinal infection is less of a risk.

Usually, when the ewe stands up, she will nudge the lamb towards her udder with her nose. The lamb instinctively looks for her teats and is attracted by the smell of the waxy secretion of the mammary pouch gland in her groin.

Colostrum:
The first nursing is extremely important to a lamb's immune system as it contains colostrum and protects the lamb during those early days of life when it is most vulnerable. If your ewe has been previously vaccinated against tetanus, enterotoxemia and other common clostridial diseases, these antibodies are absorbed by the mammary gland from the ewe's blood stream and are now incorporated into the colostrum, this temporary protection is very valuable to the lamb. The small intestine of a newborn lamb possesses a very temporary ability to absorb these large molecular antibodies from the colostrum, and their ability to absorb these important antibodies decreases hour by hour, and after 16 to 18 hours of life it becomes almost non-existent.

Colostrum contains a lot of vitamins and proteins, together with a mild laxative, which can assist in passing feces – the first feces of a lamb is called meconium, and is a black, tarry substance passed shortly after the lamb nurses for the first time.

Should a lamb's first nursing be delayed the lesser benefit it will receive to survive. The fewer antibodies absorbed by the lamb means the lamb has less of a chance to survive if problems develop. A weak lamb or one with a low birth weight can be lost because of a delay in nursing.

The colostrum milk is very valuable. Be on the look-out for a ewe that has too much milk in her udder. If the udder becomes too full the teats will become enlarged and a lamb will have difficulty nursing. If this should happen, get a clean container, such as small plastic zip-lock bag, then milk some of the colostrum milk out, save it and freeze it immediately for use with orphaned lambs, or lambs rejected by their mother. Colostrum that has been solidly frozen will keep for just a little over a year if it has been well preserved. If possible, save and freeze colostrum from different ewes, and mix when needed, the reason for this is that not all ewes produce the same broad spectrum of disease-fighting antibodies. In cases of emergencies cow or goat colostrum can be used. When the colostrum is needed, thaw it at room temperate or in slightly warm water. Never use a microwave or hot water to thaw colostrum because it will destroy the antibodies and the colostrum is then worthless.
  
Problems in early feeding:
Most likely your lambs will start to nurse by themselves. However, do not let more than half an hour to an hour pass without nursing, this is because the colostrum provides not only warmth and energy abut also antibodies against disease organisms in the sheep's environment.

Experienced shepherds give a helping hand after about 20 minutes if the lamb hasn't found the teat, or if it tries to nurse but doesn't seem to be getting any milk, or its mother won't let it nurse. Among the reasons why a ewe won't nurse her lamb is that she is nervous, her udder is sensitive or tender, or she is rejecting her lamb. In the case of a sensitive udder, if is usually because there is too much milk in the udder.

When a lamb is getting milk it will wag its tail back and forth quickly and you will notice that its body fills out quickly, and skin folds start to disappear, and its little stomach becomes tight. One of the signs that a lamb is not nursing is that it will cry continuously, or has a cold mouth.

If the ewe is difficult and won't let her lamb nurse, and her lamb isn't weak and tries to grab a teat, then restrain the ewe so that the lamb is allowed to nurse. Use a head gate which is a small square pen in which both the ewe and lamb can be put. Inside the pen is a piece of wood placed diagonally across two corners with an opening large enough to accommodate the ewe's head, chest and part of her legs which is used to hold the ewe still. If you do not have a head-gate push the ewe into a corner and lean against her with your weight.

If the lamb is getting on the teat but the flow of milk isn't satisfying it, you will probably need to "unplug" the ewe. During the last weeks of gestation, the teats are protected by a little waxy plug. Sometimes it is hard for the lamb to displace it, especially if it is a weakling. Remove the plug, and then give the teat several squirts, this is done by massaging down the teat between your thumb and index finger.

Not all lambs are "intelligent", some are a little backward and need you to help them find the teat, some will try to nurse from a tail, or a knee! Should you see this happening, then get hold of the lamb and force its mouth over the teat while massaging the teat to get a few squirts of milk into the lamb's mouth. Once the lamb gets those first couple of squirts, it will continue to suck and know that is the right place to go too! However, there are those that are really slow on the uptake and you may need to guide them for a little bit longer.

Then there is the "lazy" lamb, that does not want to nurse from the ewe but will accept a bottle enthusiastically, these little so-and-so's can try your patience.. Make a note of this on its chart.

There are times when a ewe is unable to feed her lamb the important colostrum because of mastitis. Needless to say, you will have to bottle feed her lamb with colostrum.

Always check your lambs to make sure they are nursing, and recheck the ewe to make sure she is continuing to provide milk for her lamb. Some lambs don't cry and make it known that they are starving which can lead to death. A strong lamb can survive for a day or two, but each day it gets weaker and weaker and is open to disease.

Care of the ewe:
After having given birth, ewes are usually thirsty! Provide them with a lukewarm, large bucket of water – not hot – and put in it a cup of stock molasses. Warm water is important because a ewe may not want to drink cold water, and this can reduce the production of milk. On the first day give her good quality hay, but do not give her grain, this is because the ewe could produce more milk than the newborn can use. On the other hand, if the ewe has had multiple births, and seems short of milk, grain feeding should start that first day.

Multiple births:
Twins, triplets and larger "litters" such as those of Finnsheep require more attention. You need to make sure that ewes "claim" all their lambs and that they all get their share of colostrum. To help in the production of milk so that all the lambs get their fair share, gradually increase the amount of grain. Sheep usually like molasses, but if she does not like it then continue to give it too her in lukewarm water throughout the time she remains with her lambs in the lambing pen (jug).

If you have multiple lambs that cry a lot it does not need a rocket scientist to tell you that they most probably are not getting enough milk. It could be that not all of them are crying, some of them may be satisfied, whilst others are hungry. Help the hungry ones by holding them to their mother. If she has an insufficient supply of milk, give the hungry lambs a supplemental bottle. When a ewe does not have sufficient milk to satisfy multiple lambs, let the lambs continue to nurse but supplement one or all of them with a couple of bottle feedings each day. Bottle feeding should be, 2 ounces (59.1 ml) feedings, for the first couple of days after which the amount should be increased to 4 or 6 ounces (118.3-177.4 ml) by the third and fourth day. The following is a recipe for these early days:
26 ounces (769 ml) milk – prepared by mixing half evaporated,  condensed milk with half water.
1 tablespoon (14.8 ml) castor oil – or cod liver oil
1 tablespoon (14.8 ml) glucose or sugar
1 beaten egg yolk.

Do not give them a lamb replacement milk during this time, and when you do give them replacement milk make sure it is specifically formulate for lambs and the prime ingredient is milk rather that soya.

Marking lambs:
When a lamb needs extra attention you will need to know which one it is and identification can be difficult. To distinguish a lamb needing extra care from the others, get a brightly colored, small nylon dog collar, or a collar made of yarn and put it around its neck. Or, for identification purposes you can use ear tags specifically designed for lambs and also ewes (cattle ear tags are too heavy). 

When it comes to deciding which lambs or ewes you want to keep you need identifying records to assist in knowing who the mother is.

Some identifying ear tags are made from metal, others are made from colored plastic. Some can be marked with an indelible marker. Others have numbers printed on them. You can also arrange for them to have your name inscribed on them – this is advantageous if your sheep are out on common land. 

Color tagging has another advantage, you can select a certain color to distinguish sex, or use them to indicate whether they were twins or singles.

Ear tags:
There are some tags that are self-clinching, and those that need a hole to be punched. When the lamb is still very young the tag should be applied as it is still penned in with its mother. Use only ear tags suitable for lambs, and never be tempted to use large, heavy cow tags on adult sheep because they are too heavy for the ear to support. Likewise, never use a tag intended for an adult sheep on a lamb.
If you use the small, metal lamb tag, insert it onto the ear approximately half the length of the tag to leave growing room for the maturing ear.

PROBLEMS THAT CAN OCCUR IN NEWBORN LAMBS
We already mentioned lambs that do not get adequate feed, so there is no need to repeat it in this section. 

Other problems to be on the look out for include hypothermia. Hypothermia is one of the most common problems to affect newborns, and it doesn’t have to be very cold for it to occur. Even on a fairly warm, sunny day a lamb can suffer from starvation hypothermia.

Another fairly common problem is a "weak" lamb. Weak lambs are often the result of the ewe having had a long, difficult delivery or insufficient nutrition.

Hypothermia:
Hypothermia has two basic causes - exposure and starvation. Hypothermia can result on account of very cold temperatures, or cold temperatures mixed with drafts. If a newly born wet lamb is exposed to these conditions it will kill it within a matter of hours after birth. Starvation hypothermia can occur in lambs just 4 or 5 hours old up to a couple of days. 

When a lamb is dry and fed it can withstand quite low temperatures, but due to a large ratio of skin area to body weight, wet or hungry lambs can chill quite quickly.

When a lamb is stricken with hypothermia it will appear stiff and unable to get up. If you touch its tongue and mouth thy will feel cold. Should this occur you must warm it immediately with a heat lamp, because the lamb has lost its ability to control its temperature - wrapping it in a towel or blanket is not sufficient.

There are several ways to warm a lamb. One of which is water warming, which is a method preferred by many shepherds for very cold lambs. You can also use a warm air system. Infrared lamps can cause problems. They can seriously burn a lamb, and if you are lambing in a shed, cause a fire. If you have selected a breed that lambs in the winter, or have scheduled your lambing season to be in the winter, then consider buying a warming box. If your lamb season is scheduled for the spring, then you could always bring a cold lamb into the house and warm it up in a large cardboard box placed near a fire or oven with the door left open. You can also use a hair-dryer, but be careful not to burn the lamb.

If your lamb is slightly older and is suffering severely from hypothermic starvation, it will need to be injected with glucose. This happens to lambs that are not getting milk within an hour or so after birth. Because the energy that they needed in the first nursing and did not get is not there and their body temperature begins to fall and they begin to, as it were, "feed" on the glycogen, or sugar reserves in their body. Without glucose injection, the lamb will die during warming.  

Some shepherds are strong advocates of plastic "lamb coats" during cold weather because they help the lamb to retain a great deal of their body heat. When a lamb is newly born it appears wrinkled because there is very little body fat under the skin. The layer of fat under the skin that acts as a natural insulation will take between 3 to 5 days to form. When a "lamb coat" is used to help the lamb retain its body heat, the energy that would be used to keep it warm is then converted into body fat. If you have twins or triplets, or a lamb that is not getting sufficient milk these coats can be a worth while investment.


How to warm up a "frozen" lamb:
When a lamb is really, very cold indeed, submerge it up to its neck in quite warm water – test it with your elbow, if it is to hot, then it is too hot for the lamb. Be prepared for a bit of a struggle, but keep the lamb immersed for several minutes. Dry it very well, and then put it in a warm environment until it is totally recovered. As soon as the lamb is up to it give it 1 to 2 ounces (29.6 – 59.1 ml) of warm – not hot – colostrum or if none is available, lamb milk replacer. If you are experienced in force-feeding with a stomach tube, then after you have removed the lamb from the water and it is thoroughly dry, feed it with a stomach tube as this will speed recovery.

Weak lambs:
A lamb that has become weak on account of protracted or difficult birth may suffer from anoxia which is lack of oxygen, or have fluid in its lungs. When this is the case, the first few minutes are critical. If you hear it gurgling with the first breaths, or notice it having trouble breathing swing it sharply back and forth to expel the fluids. Two or three swings usually does the trick, but remember to clear the area from anything that might hit its head and make sure you have a firm grasp on its legs.

Although it is essential for the lamb to receive colostrum during the first few hours of life, its first feeding need not be colostrum. As we mentioned before, as time slips by the ability of the lamb to absorb the antibodies in the colostrum drops rapidly and after 16 hours there is very little benefit. 

A weak lamb may be fed with a baby bottle with the nipple hole enlarged to about the size of a pin head, or it can be fed by a stomach tube (how to do this is discussed in its own section on page 119). The lamb should be given 2 ounces of warmed colostrum to give it strength – do not force the lamb if it has no sucking impulse because the milk will go into its lungs and cause death. More often than not once a weak lamb has received just one bottle feeding, or stomach feeding, it will get up and be ready to nurse from its mother without any help from you.

Resuscitation:
In the event that the heart is beating but the lamb is not breathing, artificial respiration is essential, to do this:
1. Grasp the lamb by the nose so that your thumb and fingers are slightly above the surface of its nostrils.
2. Inflate the lungs by blowing gently into the lamb's nostrils until you see the chest start to expand. Release the pressure, and gently push on the lamb's chest to expel the air.
3. Repeat the procedure until the lamb begins to breathe.

Do not panic and blow as if you are blowing up a balloon. A lamb's lungs are small and rupture if there is too much pressure. If this attempt to resuscitate does not work, try the cold-water shock treatment – it very often does the trick. Dunk the lamb in cold water – a container such as a drinking trough will do. The shock may cause the lamb to gasp and start breathing. Another trick is to insert a finger gentle down the throat. This stimulates the coughing reflex and gets things going. Remember to make sure the lamb is warm and nursed.

Stomach tube emergency feeding:
A stomach tube is used when a lamb has no sucking impulse. For such feeding you will need to have on hand a stomach tube. If the situation catches you by surprise, then buy from your local pharmacy a male catheter tube and use it with a rubber ear syringe or a 60ml hypodermic syringe. The tube should be about 14 to 16 inches (35-40 cm) long – to check for length hold it against the lamb. Before insertion the tube should be kept in a warm sterile solution, when it is wet it will slip in more easily.

You must be very careful to make sure the tube goes into the stomach and not into the lungs. If you inject liquid into the lungs it will kill the lamb. When you slip the tube into the stomach, put your thumb and finger along the left side of the neck and pass the tube with the other hand - you should be able to feel the tube as it goes down. If the tube is incorrectly passed in the trachea, you will not be able to feel the tube going through the neck. If the tube has gone into the lungs the lamb will most likely cough – but do not depend on it. If our think the tube isn't in the correct position, hold a wet finger at the protruding end. If the finger feels cool from moving air, the tube is in the lungs instead of the stomach – remove it and try again. Another way to check if it is in the correct position is to blow gently on the tube. If it is in the stomach, the lamb's abdomen will expand, and the air will escape when you release the pressure, with the abdomen flattening again. If the tube is in the lungs, the air will escape past the tube and up the trachea without this "ballooning" effect.

How to insert a stomach tube:
This is made easier if two people are in attendance, but it can be done by one person. When it is done by one person, the syringe should be filled in advance with 2 ounces (59.1 ml) of warm colostrum and kept within easy reach. Also the measured tube should be warm and sterile.

1. Place the lamb on a table and hold its body with your left forearm, with its feet towards you. The lamb's head, neck and back should be in a straight line if you are looking down from above, but the head should be at a 90 degree angle to the neck.
2. Use the fingers of your left hand to open the lamb's mouth to insert the warmed sterile tube.
3. Insert the tube slowly over the lamb's tongue, back into its throat, giving it time to swallow.
4. Push the tube down the neck of the lamb and into the stomach. Because you measured the tube beforehand, you should know about how much of it should stick out. When the end of the stomach area is reached stop pushing. The average insertion distance is 11 to 12 inches (28 or 30.5 cm). You cannot insert it too far but it is important to insert it far enough.
5. Confirm that the position is correct with the wet finger or blowing test.
6. Insert the end of the catheter tube into the syringe filled with warmed milk, and slowly squeeze the milk into the lamb's stomach.
7. On the way out withdraw the tube quickly to prevent dripping into the lungs
    
Eyelids:
Don't forget to check a lamb's eyelids to see if the eyelids are turned in and would irritate the eye. If this is left unattended the lamb could become blind.

Orphan lambs:
A lamb can be orphaned on account of the death of its mother, abandonment, rejection, or loss of milk production before the lamb has reached the age of weaning. A ewe may also just disown one, or even all of her lambs.

There are several causes that contribute to a ewe's rejection of her lamb:
1. If the ewe had an over-abundance of milk, her udder will be painful and sensitive.
2. In the case of twins, she may have delivered one lamb in one location and then moved to another to deliver the other and have forgotten about her first lamb.
3. Some ewes cannot count to two, whereas they may be willing to accept twins, but as long as they have one, they are happy and are not too bothered about the other.
4. If a lamb was born in a pasture it might have wandered of before the ewe has had a chance to lick it dry and become bonded.
5. The ewe may have sore or chapped teats, or perhaps the teeth of the lamb are sharp.
6. If the ewe has had difficultly lambing, she might well be too exhausted and therefore not interested in her lamb.
7. The lamb may be chilled and she abandoned it thinking it was dead.
8. Young, first-time ewes may be nervous, confused or frightened by their lamb.
9. Lamb swapping may have taken place. When two ewes lamb near each other at the same time, a ewe has been known to adopt and bond to the other ewe's lamb, but the other ewe does not accept the first ewe's lamb.

If a lamb has already nursed and the ewe then rejects it, check the udder for sensitivity and also the lamb's teeth. If the teeth are sharp, use an emery board to file its teeth, but not too much otherwise the lamb will become sore and refuse to nurse! 

Grafting:
Grafting is when an orphaned or rejected lamb is "adopted" by another ewe. It is getting a ewe to accept another lamb as her own in place of her dead lamb. This isn't the easiest of processes.

Grafting lambs is more successful when it is done close to the delivery of a ewe that has lost her own lamb.

There are a number of things you can try:
1. Smear the ewe's fetal fluids over the lamb you want to graft, this way she can be fooled into thinking the lamb is her own. This is a method that has been used for a long time. 
2. Rub the lamb with a little water that has molasses in it to encourage the ewe to lick the lamb.
3. Use an "adoption coat". The coat is made out of cotton, stockinet tubing. When it is stretched over an accepted lamb that died for a few hours, it will absorb the smell and can then be turned inside out and then stretched over the lamb you want to graft to the ewe. This method can also be applied to a ewe that has one lamb and is heavy with milk. To do this, slip a coat on to her own lamb, then put it on the lamb that need fostering.
4. There is available on the market a strong masking scent. Daub the ewe's nose and the rear end of the lamb with this masking scent, or with a dab of petroleum jelly, because a ewe identifies her lamb primarily by smelling its rear end. Menthol, vanilla could also do the job.
5. It is said that tying a dog near the pen fosters the mothering instinct. However, there is the possibility that the ewe will become aggressive and butt the lamb if she can't get to the dog!
6. Another way is to make the ewe rattled and stressed, which isn't the nicest of solutions. But if you are desperate and want to save a lamb, you might try it. Flick the ears of ewe with a switch. Once the ewe is rattled she will urinate from the stress and may accept the lamb.
7. Immerse the lamb intended for grafting and her own ewe in a solution saturated with salt to even out the scent.

Forceful Acceptance:
If all your attempts to graft a lamb to a ewe have failed, to save the lamb you must use stronger methods. One solution is to either pen or tie the ewe in such a way that she cannot hurt the lamb and it can nurse regularly in safety. This may require tying the ewe's hind legs together to temporarily immobilize her to prevent her from keeping the lamb from nursing. As for the lamb, it won't have the usual guidance from a mother therefore you may need to give it a helping hand by holding the ewe and pushing the lamb to the udder.

Caution: You must be careful to exercise judgement in the size of the lamb that you are attempting to graft. If an orphaned lamb is a week old it may be aggressive when it nurses and this can frighten the ewe. If you are trying to graft two lambs of different size and age, the weaker or younger lamb may not be able to compete. This can cause its growth to be stunted and at worst starved and die.

The most likely situation you could encounter is when a ewe delivers twins and rejects one. When this happens spray the rear end of both lambs with a confusing scent, this is the easiest thing to try first, and very often works.

Should a ewe start displaying any signs of hostility towards one of her twins, take action straight away because she will start butting it. The best thing to do in this situation is to tie her up. The sooner you stop her from comparing the smell of the two lambs, the sooner she will accept the rejected one. When a ewe has to be tied up, be sure that she gets a frequent supply of water, leaving water in front of her may not be a good idea.

Grafting an orphan to a different ewe:
When another ewe goes into labor and just one lamb is expected, this could be the right time to graft an orphaned/rejected lamb on to that ewe.

Prepare for this by having a bucket of warm water and an empty bucket at hand. Keep the rejected/orphaned lamb close at hand and watch as the lambing progresses. As soon as the water bag emerges catch it and empty the contents into the empty bucket. 

Then:
1. As the ewe delivers her own lamb, dunk the rejected lamb into the water bag fluid. If you were unable to catch the water bag, immerse the lamb into the warm water up to its head.
2. Rub the two lambs together, especially the tops of the head and the rear ends.
3. Place them both at the ewe's nose. More often than not she will lick them and assume they are both hers.

The newborn must not be neglected in your attempt to find a new mother for the orphaned/rejected lamb. The new mucus on the new lamb's nose must be either licked by its mother, or wiped off by yourself before it can breathe! If the ewe delivers twins, you may have to try again to graft the orphan with another ewe. When this happens, make sure the orphan is dry, but in the case of a rejected lamb, keep trying to get its mother to take it or else bottle feed it yourself.

If the ewe appears to have accepted a grafted lamb that is several days older than her newborn, then hobble the orphan's legs so that it doesn’t get up and run around too much at first. Let the newborn lamb have the first chance to nurse because your older, orphaned lamb does not need the colostrum. The age of the orphaned or rejected lamb is an important factor. Because it is older, it is larger, so be on the look out to make sure the newly born gets its fair share of milk and the orphan gets the "lion's" share. Needless to say both lambs will have to be supervised carefully.

Another "trick" is to save the water bag from a ewe, and freeze it in half pint (3/4 liter) quantities. When you have a need, thaw the fluid at room temperature and pour it over the ewe's nose and then onto the lamb you want her to accept as her own. This is not the best way, but it is worth trying.

Coaxing a ewe that has lost her lamb to take an orphan:
Should a ewe deliver a dead lamb and there is a young orphan that needs a mother, take the orphan and dunk it in warm water containing a little bit of salt and some molasses. Dip your hand in the warm water and wet its head and put the orphan in front of her, by the time she licks off the salt and molasses, there is a good chance that she had adopted the lamb. If the orphaned lamb is several days old it does not benefit from colostrum, which is the first milk produced by the mother and provides the lamb with temporary immunity, so milk the ewe and freeze the colostrum for use in future emergencies.

There is another approach to grafting that is relative to any orphaned/rejected lamb.
The traditional way in which to get a mother to accept a lamb that is not her own is that when a ewe gives birth to a dead lamb, or it dies shortly thereafter, the skin is removed from the dead lamb, and then fastened like a coat over the orphan. Skinning a dead lamb is not a simple process, and is not the most pleasant things to have to do, the drawback with this process is that most likely you do not know why the lamb died, and you could in fact be transferring germs and disease

A cleaner approach is to rub a damp towel over the dead lamb, and then rub the towel on the orphan, but before doing this the orphan should be washed with warm water, giving special attention to washing the rear end, which is the first identifying place a ewe sniffs.

Bottle feeding:
Bottle feeding is time consuming but is one of the greatest enjoyment in sheep raising. 

Even if a ewe is weak from hard labor and/or has no milk, she should be allowed to clean her lamb as much as possible. She will claim the lamb even if she cannot nurse it, and even when you bottle feed her lamb it can be put back with her and stay with her. Don't forget, if the ewe is too weak to lick off the mucus from a lamb's nose, wipe it off for her, then dry the lamb and put some iodine on its navel at once, then feed the lamb with either colostrum stored from another ewe, or make up the following formula: 
26 ounces (769 ml) milk – prepared by mixing half evaporated, condensed milk with half water.
1 tablespoon (14.8 ml) castor oil – or cod liver oil
1 tablespoon (14.8 ml) glucose or sugar
1 beaten egg yolk. 
 
Mix the ingredients well and give about 2 ounces (59.1 ml) at a time for the first day, allowing 2 to 3 hours between feeds. You will need a lamb bottle for this. As the lamb grows the nipples on the bottle should be larger.

On the second day, increase the feedings of the formula to 3 ounces (88.7 ml) at a time. However, if the lamb is large or hungry you can give it 4 ounces (118.3 ml) 2 to 3 hours apart

On the third day, the formula can be made without the egg yolk and sugar and the oil can be reduced to 1 teaspoon (4.9 ml) per 16 ounces (769 ml) of milk.

After the third day, you can gradually change to lamb milk replacer, however, do not be tempted to use a milk replacer formulated for calves because it is too low in fat and protein. You vet can order a lamb milk replacer for you to have on hand.

Goat's milk is also good for lambs. If you have some goats then you won't need to use a milk replacer.

It is tempting to over-bottle feed a cute little lamb who will learn quickly how to twist your little finger in its cute appealing way to get that little bit extra!

Don't be alarmed, if after bottle feeding a lamb and you are holding it on your lap, you experience a sudden surge of heat about 5 – 10 minutes after feeding it is normal. What occurs is an acute dilation of the capillaries of the skin and this releases a short burst of body heat. The surge of heat usually last only a minute or so.

If a lamb is overfed the first sign will be a yellow semi-pasty diarrhea. Should this occur, substitute the bottle feed with plain water or an electrolyte solution (see chapter 8).

Overfeeding is more common during the first week or two than later on. After having given them colostrum and then starting them on a lamb milk replacer that has been diluted with twice the label recommendation of water, matters should improve, this is the only time you should not "obey" the directions written on the label. They are there for a purpose! Gradually increase the concentration of milk powder in the solution until it reaches full strength, by that time the lamb is a week or so old. If the lamb starts to produce yellow stools, then reduce the concentration slightly for a day or so and gradually bring it back up.

There are ewes that after having lambed either have insufficient milk, or the milk just dries up which occurs before the lamb is 3 or 4 weeks old. The unfortunate lamb will most likely, loose weight and there is the danger if it is not a resourceful lamb, starve to death. The more smart lamb will try and sneak feeds from other inattentive ewes. When this is the case the lamb will sneak up behind a ewe just after grain is fed, knowing that the ewe's attention is focused on the grain and she is competing for her share, or when she is munching away with her head in the feeder. As the lambs grow older, the majority of ewes become less protective of their lambs, and the unfortunate lamb seems to recognize this and will also sneak up from behind and nurse between her legs.

Feeding lambs born to a ewe with multiple births:
There are several breeds that give birth to what is termed "litters" that is multiple lambs such as the Finnsheep breed. (Also, if you happen to have a large flock, the chance is that you may have several orphans from a single birthing ewe). Some shepherds reduce their work load by installing "cafeteria -style" feeders. There are several companies that manufacture these feeders. Should you decide to use this system, the lambs will need to be taught how to nurse from a bottle of warmed milk replacer, then changed to the milk-feeder. 

This system allows the lambs to have constant access to milk, "the milk bar" is open for business as and when they want it. The milk formula is usually fed cold to reduce the chance of overeating and also to reduce bacterial contamination when it happens to have been left standing all day. Needless to say, the milk feeder must be cleaned, disinfected and supplied with fresh milk on a daily basis. 

CARE OF BABY LAMBS
The time is soon coming when you should do certain things to promote the well being of your youngsters such as vaccination, docking and castration.

Vaccination:
If pneumonia is a problem, you will have had your newborn lambs vaccinated with an intranasal vaccination, even though the lamb will have had some degree of immunity passed on to it through its mother's colostrum.

Lambs at the age of 10 weeks, should be given their own vaccination for tetanus, enterotoxemia and other clostridial diseases because whatever degree of immunity they received from their mother at birth has by now diminished.

Docking – tail removal
If your lambs were born in a barn, their tails should be docked before turning them out on to pasture.

If your lambs were born on pasture, they are quite easily caught when they are 2 or 3 days old. We stress 2 – 3 days old, because at the "old" age of 4 days, they have learned to run really fast!

Docking is also less stressful to a lamb when it is only 2 or 3 days old and the tail is still small.

Most breeds of sheep are born with long tails, and these can accumulate large amounts of manure tangled up in the wool – this attracts flies and then maggots, and can interfere later on with breeding, shearing, and lambing.

There are several ways to remove a lamb's tail but always remember,
cleanliness should be upheld at all times, no matter what procedure you decide to use to avoid the risk of infection.
:
1. Cutting with a bluntish knife – it the knife is sharp it causes more bleeding
2. A knife and hammer over a wooden block.
3. A hot electric chisel or clamp – this method cauterizes the wound to reduce bleeding.
4. A Burdizzo emasculator and knife – this method crushes the ends of the blood vessels.
5. An Elastrator, which applies a small strong rubber ring and cuts off the circulation of the blood, with the result that the tail drops of in a couple of weeks.

The Elastrator is the method favored by many experienced shepherds. It has several advantages such as minimizing shock, elimination of bleeding problems, cost effective and easy to use. As with each and every method, your lambs should have had a tetanus vaccination before docking to reduce the risk of tetanus. The Elastrator rubber rings should be stored in a small, wide-mouth jar of alcohol, disinfectant, or mild bleach solution to keep them sterile and also to disinfect your fingers when you reach into it. The Elastrator pliers should be disinfected. When you use the Elastrator, the tail most often falls off in 1 to 3 weeks, however, it can be cut off 3 days after on the body side close to the band. Dunk the stump in 7% iodine to prevent infection. If you live in an area where tetanus is a known factor in the soil, give the lamb a shot of tetanus antisera at docking.  

The Burdizzo emasculator is quick but expensive, perhaps a neighbor will be willing to loan you theirs. When the procedure is finished with stitching with a mattress suture in the skin, it is almost bloodless and the wound heals around the same time as the tail would have dropped of if you used the Elastrator. However, the Burdizzo is expensive, requires suture procedure and an experienced operator. If you use this method don't forget to disinfect the emasculator and/or the knife.

The best length of the stump of the tail is 1.1/2 inches (3.8 cm) from the body. As you lift the tail, you will notice two flaps of skin that attach from the underside of the tail to the area on each side of the rectum. The band or cut should be placed just at, or slightly past where the skin attaches to the tail – on the tail, not the skin. This leaves enough tail to serve as a cover and prevents damage to the muscle structure that would weaken the area and add to the risk for prolapse later on.

Castration:
If you are considering castrating a lamb ram you do not intend to use for breeding purposes it should be done early rather than late. Castrated lambs grow faster than those that are not and also ewe lambs. Once the testicles have descended into the scrotum, that is the ideal time to castrate, this is usually around 10 days after birth. There are two efficient ways in which you can do this, and the equipment you will require are the same as those used in docking.

You may want to take into consideration that if you have early lambs and plan on selling the rams for meat at 5 months – that is before the breeding season – you can forego castration, the drawback is, that in the west, the slaughterhouse will penalize you for not castrating. Check to see if this is in effect in your part of the world. However, if you intend to keep the ram for longer than 6 months before slaughter, castration is recommended.

An emasculator can be used and there is no wound to attract flies, and this is an important factor to pay attention to in the fly season. This bloodless procedure crushes the spermatic cord and arteries, and pain is at a minimum, and little or no danger of infection 

The Elastrator is a special pair of pliers that stretch the rubber ring as you pull the scrotum through. When the pliers are removed, the ring tightens around the end of the scrotum where it is attached to the body. The Elastrator cuts off the blood supply and the testicles waste away in about 20 – 30 days. There is no internal hemorrhage or shock, and very little risk of infection. If, however, you do have a problem with infection, douse the band with iodine for about a week. If the weather is hot, spray it with a fly repellent. As might be expected, when the band is first applied, the young ram will run around like crazy for a minute or two, but after that they do not seem to be bothered by it at all.

Don't forget to disinfect your equipment.

Cryptorchid (hidden testicles) or Short Scrotum:
The Elastrator ring can also be used for the purpose of sterilization. Lamb rams that are sterilized gain weight faster, have less fat and leaner meat than castrated or uncastrated rams, which is an advantage at market. The procedure is done when the ram lamb is about 4 weeks of age.

To sterilize a ram lamb, the rubber Elastrator ring is used on the scrotum, but the testes are pushed back up into the body cavity. By doing this the increased pressure on the sperm results in sterilization, while the hormones are still present to increase the ram's weight gain with more lean meat. The ram shows little or no sex activity.



CHAPTER 11
SHEARING

Most breeds of sheep must be shorn every year, it is a major operation. If you are not interested in wool production, then consider raising hair breeds. 

Recently, scientists in Australia have been working on a chemical that causes sheep to shed their wool. The chemical is a naturally occurring protein that is given in the form of a injection. After the injection, the sheep are covered with a hair net to collect the fleece. The protein causes the fleece to break off near the skin surface, and a day later, the sheep begins to grow a new fleece. This beak-through has not passed the red-tape in procedure in some countries – check to see if this injection is permitted in your part of the world.

Until such time that shepherds can use this injection, the operation has to be done manually. You will need a good pair of hand shears, or an electric pair of clippers. Shearing is a skill that takes practice, you may have seen professional shearers go about their work, and make it look easy especially as they can shear a sheep in just a few minutes – but remember, they have had l o t s of practice.

In regions where there are lots of small flocks, there is often a professional shearer that goes from one flock to another. If a reputable shearer lives in your area, and you are new to raising sheep or just have a small flock, it is probably a good idea to hire him to do the job.  If you go this route, you will learn a lot if you are there to watch him, and the job will go smoother with an extra pair of hands to sort, catch, and move the sheep. 

If there aren't any shearers available to help out then you will have to do it yourself. Electric clippers are quicker to use than hand shears. They are a little on the expensive side, and can cut hands as well as sheep, especially when you are new to shearing. If you are a small flock owner and what to shear your own sheep, hand shears have several advantages:

1. They provide an inexpensive way to get started.
2. They do not require electricity, so you can work on the sheep anywhere.
3. They are easy and quick to sharpen with just a hand stone.
4. They are lightweight and easy to carry around.

You want to minimize loss of body heat in cold or rainy climates, so do not shave the sheep too closely if your climate is such.

Keep a spare set of blades around. They can be handy for the occasional trim job, such as trimming excessive wool from the udder of a new mother. 

The most comfortable hand shears to use are "Rigged" blades. They have a leather strap taped onto the handle, and a rubber stop taped to the top of the other handle at the base of the blade. The strap prevents it from being kicked out of your hand!

How to sharpen blades: 
Start sharpening by reversing the normal position of the blades, cross them over each other. Use a medium sharpening stone. Grind the stone along the existing bevel of each blade with long strokes. Do not sharpen the "inside" surface of either blade. When you have finished sharpening, if there happen to be any slightly rough edges, run the stone flat-wise along the inside surface of the back – not the edge – to smooth the edges. When you are shearing, your blades will become blunt and need attention, to do this firmly close the shears so that each cutting edge protrudes beyond the back of the other blade. Then, use the fine side of a small ax stone and follow the existing bevel of each blade.

Preparation for shearing:
Gather your sheep together for about 12 hours before you plan to shear. Keep them in a clean, dry handling pen to reduce stress – not just them, but yourself. If it should rain or is raining and the sheep are wet, postpone shearing them, see #2 page 128.

If your flock is large, break them into groups that have similar types of fleeces such as a group with the same breed, same age, etc.

You may consider wearing a back-support belt when you shear, because shearing can be tough on the back!

How to shear:
Learning the pattern of shearing strokes lessens the time involved in removing the wool. However, the "trick" lies in immobilizing the sheep through various holds that prevent them from struggling – a helpless sheep is a quiet sheep. Forceful attempts to incapacitate sheep cause a sheep to struggle, try to stay relaxed as you work.

Should you cut a sheep during shearing, the cut will heal quickly, but it is best to use an antibacterial spray against any possible infection that could spread to the lymph glands or result in flystrike.

20 steps in shearing:
1. Slip your left thumb into the mouth of the sheep – that is in the back of the incisor teeth – and place your other hand on the sheep's right hip.

2. Bend the sheep's head sharply over her right shoulder, and swing her towards you.

3. Lower the sheep to the ground as you step back. From this position you can lower her flat on the ground or set her up on the rump to trim the feet.

4. Start by shearing the brisket, then shear up into the area of the left shoulder. Place one knee behind the back of the sheep, and the other foot in front.

5. Having done this, the sheep is now on her left side. Next, trim the top of her head, then hold one ear and shear down the cheek and side of the neck as far as the shoulder, into the opening you made for the brisket.

6. Next, set the sheep up on her rump, resting against your legs. Now shear down the shoulder while she is in this position.

7. In the same position, hold her head towards your chest, and shear down the left side.

8. Having done that, hold her left front leg up toward her neck and from this position shear her side and belly.

9. With just a minor change in position of the sheep, you are now ready to shear the back flank.

10. Press down on the back flank and the leg will be straightened out, this makes it easier to sheer.

11. From this position, shear the sheep along her backbone, and, if possible, a few inches beyond.

12. By holding up the left leg, it is possible to trim the area around the crotch.

13. Congratulations, you are half way through shearing. At this point your feet are positioned so close to the sheep's belly, she can't get up.

14. Now, hold one ear firmly but not too tightly and start shearing down the right side of the neck.

15.Take hold of the sheep with the left hand under her chin and around her neck, now shear the right shoulder.

16. Pull the sheep up against you to expose her right side and shear down that side.

17. With the sheep held close to you, and the left hand holding her leg, shear farther down the side and the rump.

18. With the sheep lying down, bend down and place your left knee above the top of her front leg and finish the right flank and shear the sheep's hind quarters.

19. Now hold the rear leg up and shear the right side of the crotch.

20. Help the sheep to stand – your job is complete and she will be running around and grazing as usual in minutes.

Shearing suggestions:
Having read this you will realize that shearing is something that is not learned all at once, it is learned with practice and you will develop your own techniques that suit you best. Points to bear in mind when shearing are:
1. Shear as early as weather permits because cuts heal better without flies being around to infest. Ewes can be gently sheared before lambing, this is advantageous as it makes it easier to assist a ewe if the needs be in lambing, also it removes dirty wool tags that the lamb might suck on.

2. Never shear if the wool is either wet or just damp. Wet or damp wool is very hard to dry when it comes to sacking and storing. Also it carries the risk of being combustible, and also spoiling by mildew.

3. Keep the sheep to be shorn in a pen preferably one that is covered having a slatted floor. Put them in the pen the afternoon before you intend to shear.

4. Use a clean tarp on which to shear. Shake it after each sheep. You can also shear on a wooden floor that can be swept off, if one is not available, a piece of plywood 4 x 4 (1.2 x 1.2 meter) will do the job.

5. Shear the fleece in one piece, and keep the trimmed wool from the legs or the hooves away from the fleece.

6. Remove manure tags, burrs etc. and keep them separate.

7. Avoid going over the same place twice to tidy up on overlapping your strokes.

8. If you are selling to a dealer, roll the fleece properly and tie with twine.

9. If you have sheep with varied colored fleeces, keep the colors separate, and remember to sweep the floor after each shearing. Do not combine white fleece with dark fleece.

10. Clean fleeces used for spinning wool without manure tags, skirtings or vegetation as they command the best price.

11. If the fleece is of a lower quality, don't expect to get the best price. These fleeces can be adequate for wool filled quilt batting, cushions, rug yarn, or felting.

Handling of sheep:
Timely shearing is one of the important aspects in getting a high-quality pelt – a pelt is the skin of a slaughtered sheep that still has wool on it. Another important aspect is stressed by tanneries who will most likely discard any pelt that has several cuts or more than two cuts in the middle of the skin. 

Picking a sheep up by its wool can be disastrous to a pelt because the outer layer pf skin is pulled away from the inner skin and skin separation occurs. Skin separation can take as long as 2 months to heal, and unless the pelt has been completely healed it has very, very low value.  






  

CHAPTER 12
MARKETING, FLEECES, AND BY-PRODUCTS

For profit and pleasure, make use of all the by-products you can.

Reaching your market:
The first step is to get yourself known, together with the products you have to offer. There are many ways to find buyers who want your nice fleeces or good meat.

If there are other farmers in your area, you may want to join with them in marketing your products, or you might prefer to do it by yourself.

WOOL
Wool has many very fine qualities. It is not only very warm during the winter months, but it also repels water. It is strong, but at the same time has an elastic-like quality, and this means that it can be spun into a variety of yarns, from very fine to bulky. One pound (0.5 kg) of wool can make 10 miles (16.1 km) of yarn!

Heredity determines the wool type, but its quality and strength depend on not only the health of the sheep, but also the nutrition it was given during each year of fleece growth. Illness can affect the quality of a fleece and can result it in becoming, tender, brittle wool, with a weak portion in every fiber of the whole fleece.


Evaluating wool:
Commercial buyers purchase wool by the pound (0.5 kg) which is put in either a bag or bale, that can weigh anywhere from 150 to 1,000 pounds (68-453.6 kg). Buyers evaluate the season's yield of wool either from a flock or a group of flocks depending on the wool's intended use.

A buyer will inspect wool for the amount of seeds, burrs, twigs, and other vegetable matter. Wool that is free from such things is more valuable. The length of fibers is also taken into account, and falls into three major categories; staple, French combing, and clothing. Buyers are on the look-out for fleeces that have a consistent length.

Staple strength and position of break is another consideration. "Tender" wool is wool that has a low tensile strength and breaks unevenly. "Broken" wool is wool that breaks at the same point on most fibers through the fleece. Once again the condition of the fleece relates to health and nutrition. To test for weakness, stretch a small tuft of wool between both hands. Strut, it with the index finger of one hand, and if it is a good staple it will make a faint, dull, twanging sound, and does not tear or break.

If a commercial buyer is looking for color or colored fiber fleeces, what he will look for are, for the most part, bright, white wool that can be dyed without bleaching. However, many hand-spinners and some commercial buyers will look for naturally colored wools.

Crimp, which is the "wave" effect in wool fibers varies from one animal to another. Buyers are interested in consistent quality. Wool that has too much or too little crimp compared with that of the rest of the flock reduces the value of the bag.

Fiber diameter is another factor that is taken into account. "Spinning count," "blood grading" and "micron" systems are all approaches used to describe the diameter of fibers. Spinning count originally means 1 pound (0.5 kg) of a particular type of fleece wool would be spun into "hanks" of wool – a hank being 560 yards (511.8 m). The "blood system" is the grading of the fineness of wool, and the word "blood" refers to a sheep's breeding stock, such as the Merino breed. As for the "micron system" it is a laboratory test to measure the average diameter of the wool fiber. This approach is most often used by commercial buyers who are purchasing large quantities of wool. In this system, the larger the number means the coarser the wool.

If on account of a recessive gene factor, a black lamb is born, its black fibers can rub off on the fleeces of white sheep and this is not desirable because of problems that occur later on in the manufacturing process, consequently the value of your white wool will not fetch the best price.

Benefits of wool bedding:
Wool can be used to fill quilts, comforters and pillows and bring in a nice, additional form of income. If your flock is only small the quantity needed for mattresses and futons may not be sufficient. Woolen bedding is known for its comfort and warmth throughout the winter which surpasses comforters made from man-made fibers. Wool stuffed comforters are kept clean by making a removable cotton washable cover. 

Wool and hand spinners:
Selling fleeces to hand-spinners in itself won't bring in a big cash flow, whereas a good income can be earned by raising breeding stock.

If you kept your fleeces clean, relatively free from vegetation such as hay, grain and burrs, and your sheep were shorn carefully, and the fleeces were handled properly after shearing, you will have a product that is valuable for handcrafters.

Immediately after shearing, put your best fleeces to one side, and make sure they are completely dry before storing. Nice fleeces sell quickly so because of this they can be stored in a plastic bag. However, for longer storage, gently place one, no more, unrolled fleece into an empty paper bag such as a feed bag. Another approach that has several advantages is to lay the fleece out into a large shallow box, thereafter you can shake out a lot of the particles attached to the fleece as well getting rid of second cuts before you bag and this makes the fleece more valuable.

Fleeces that are unusual are sought after by hand-spinners, these fleeces are those with unusual natural coloring, or they can be from the long-wool breeds that are highly lustrous and easy to spin. If you are interested in doing your own hand-spinning, or marketing to hand-spinners, you may like to consider the more exotic breeds for your flock, such as Shetland, Cotswold, and Cormo. Finnsheep, although they are not noted for their wool production, have soft, fine wool that is valuable for blending purposes.

Tips of how to market your fleeces:
If you live in the west, there are most likely craft classes that teach the techniques of spinning wool and so on. Contact them and let them know you have fleeces for sale.
You might also try selling them over the internet.

Success is built upon reputation. A satisfied customer will return and buy more from you so bear in mind what they are looking for. If the wool is poorly sheared, or is full of either manure tags, burrs or other vegetable matter that has to be picked out by hand it is time consuming and does not attract a customer to come to you again. Establish a good reputation for yourself by supplying hand-spinners with only your best fleeces.

Colored fleeces for handcrafters:
Many weavers and knitters spin yarn for their own use and to sell, this has created a special market for naturally colored fleeces that can be beige to red, or gray to black.

If this is your market, you might consider getting a black ram with a suitable type of wool and breed him to a small flock of white ewes. It has been said that the lambs born of such breeding will be white but carry the black gene. However, in many cases when a dark ram sires a flock of white ewes, the ewes have often given birth to darker lambs. Don't forget the danger of inbreeding, by the time you get a good number of your black ram's granddaughters into your breeding flock, it is time to replace the ram with one that is not related to your flock.

The fleece of most black sheep has a tendency to lighten from year to year. However, there is an advantage in this because it gives a greater variation in color from a small flock. When you are looking to buy a black sheep, do not consider the degree of darkness as being the prime factor, what you should look for is the body conformation, and grade of wool which will be inherited by the offspring.

Cleaning fleeces for processing:
Most fleeces need washing before they are processed. On the odd occasion you won't have to do this if a lamb's fleece is really clean and can be processed and spun first and washed later.

If you need some grease to remain then use a natural soap. If your requirement is that it is grease-free then use a regular detergent and a de-greasing washing-up soap. Several fleeces can be washed at the same time in a washing machine, however, some experienced shepherds wash their fleeces one at a time in a washtub. The following is a guideline on how to wash your fleece:

1. If you choose to hand wash or wash your fleece in a top-loading machine, fill the container/drum with hot water and add 1 cup (235.6 ml) of laundry detergent and half a cup (118.3 ml) degreasing washing-up soap.

2. Make sure the detergent and soap are well mixed before you push the fleece down if you are using the hand wash. If you are using a washing machine, do not run it on full cycle, let the wool soak because you do not want to agitate the fleece.

3. Do not twist the fleece, rather, every now and then squeeze it gently.

4. Continue soaking for at least an hour.

5. After this, loosen all the dirt by emptying the water. Lift the fleece from your container and pat it dry. If you are using a washing machine, set to spin dry.

6. Rinse the container/drum and refill with warm water.

7. Put the wool back in to soak for another 15 minutes.

8. Repeat the draining and drying step in cool, but not cold water, and add 1 cup (236.6 ml) of white vinegar.

9. Soak the fleece in the solution for about 5 minutes.

10. Repeat the process of draining, drying, soaking step until the drained water is clear.

11. Remove the fleece and lay the wool out on old towels, and then roll it up and squeeze out as much water as possible. If you are using a washing machine, the wool can be spun dry the last time.

There is another approach used by experienced shepherds and that includes using a 40 gallon (152 liter) square laundry tub. A square laundry tub tends to hold the heat which is good for soaking. When the water cools down, it deposits a gummy consistency back on the wool. A very hot soaking with lots of soap or detergent can clean most wools with one wash, followed by one or two hot rinses if necessary. Some dirt may remain, but it dries to a fine powder that falls off in the teasing, carding, spinning and washing of the yarn process.

To assist in the drying process, use an old washing machine without a water connection, this will speed up the removal of wash water and rinse water, and shorten the drying period of the wool. If you do it outside then much of the mess is there and there is no risk of clogging up the plumbing, as can happen in a bathtub!


How to dry a fleece:
To dry a fleece you will need to lay it out in a way that provides a good flow of air, top and bottom. Nail 2 x 4s together then staple them on chicken wire to create an easy drying frame. If you are doing this outside, make sure it is secure and that it doesn't blow into the dirt and cause you to repeat the cleaning process! If it is a very windy day, loosely tie another piece of chicken wire on top of the frame.

Make sure the wool is completely dry. Once it is completely dry it is ready for storing, shipping or for you to process. If you decided to store the fleece, paper or burlap bags work well and are preferable to plastic bags. Having done this seal the ends of the bag to prevent bugs from entering and ruining your fleece.

Carding:
Your next step is carding. Carding is a process that converts loose, clean wool into continuous, untwisted strands. It can be done either by hand or with a carding machine. Carding "teases" the fibers apart, removes short fibers and sets them to lie in the same direction. Commercial wool processors use a machine. Those of you with two or more sheep may prefer to use a drum carder because it is faster, efficient and easier on the hands however, if you don't have much wool to process it can be done by using a hand-cards. 

The removal of little burrs, seeds, chaff etc. remaining after washing should be removed as you card because the little so-and-so's will ruin your finished work!

If you wish, during carding you can blend various fibers together and this will produce interesting colors and textures. After your wool has been prepared, it can then be spun into yarn or used in other ways.

How to hand-card:
Hand cards are good for occasional small carding jobs. They are not very expensive.
To start, spread the wool on the left hand-card, with the shorn ends at the top of the card. Now take the right hand-card and lay it in the center of the left hand-card, with the handles in opposite directions. Draw the right hand-card away from you. This step is repeated several times, until the fibers begin to align themselves.

When the fibers are well aligned, lay the right hand card on your knee, and with both handles in the same direction, brush away from yourself. This will deposit the wool on the right hand card. Switch paddles and repeat this step several times. Once this is done roll short or medium wools off the card, or you can fold over longer wools, and the fibers are ready to spin.

FLEECE FOR HANDCRAFT PROJECTS
Weaving, knitting, crocheting are among the many things handcrafters produce.

Handspun yarn:
Spinning wool for your own personal knitting, or to sell to other knitters or weavers is an outlet to be explored.

Australian Locker Hooking:
Australian Locker Hooking uses unspun fleece. It is a new version of an older craft that used commercial rug yarn. The "locker hook" has a large crochet hook on one end and an eye at the other so that unspun wool may be hooked into rug canvas and locked in with a binder yarn carried by the locker hook. For those of you who do not incline to spinning, this is an attractive and profitable way to create rugs, wall hangings, saddle blankets and so on.

Wool scraps:
Unprocessed wool has several uses, for example its ability to absorb oil is 30 times greater than the weight of oil, which makes it an excellent, disposable cleaning tool. The garden is not forgotten either, wool works like the black-plastic, used to germinate and reduce the number of weeds, but it allows water, air and nutrients to pass through the ground. Wool is flammable, and because of this fire code restrictions may prevent you from using wool as an insulating material. When there are no such restrictions it can be used to insulate, barns and storage sheds. Because of the special properties of wool, scientists are trying to find a way to create a wool-based insulation that meets fire code requirements.

MEAT AND MILK
Meat and milk bring in more profit than wool. Look into the prospects of selling direct to the consumer instead of at a barn sale or other markets. 

You are in a better position to offer customers a better meat deal than they would find at a butcher's shop and because there are no middle-men, the profit is not split – it is yours.

As for milk, and cheese they can be sold to individual customers, or health food shops.

In some countries in the west there are restriction laws and regulations on slaughter-and-sell practices. Most are designed to enforce sanitation and ensure the safety of food, so check to see what is applicable to your part of the world.

Lamb meat consumers are, for the most part, among the higher-income groups. This should be borne in mind when determining where to advertise. Many customers prefer leaner cuts of meat, so do not over fatten the lambs in the last month before slaughter. It is important to have a good idea of how much you will get back for different cuts.

The following will give you an idea of cut percentages to expect:


Type of cut              Relative percentage of return
Loin                         8% of hanging carcass weight, or 4.4% of live weight
Rib (rack)                 7% of hanging carcass weight, or 3.9% of live weight 
Leg (boned/rolled)    24% of hanging carcass weight, or 13.2% of live weight
Shoulder (boned)     20% of hanging carcass weight, or 11.0% of live weight
Mince lamb              10% of hanging carcass weight, or 5.5% of live weight
Stew meat                7% of hanging carcass weight, or 3.9% of live weight 
Bone/waste etc.       24% of hanging carcass weight, or 13.2% of live weight

If you have a lamb that weighs 115 pounds (52 kg) for butchering, you will get about 5 pounds (2.3 kg) of loin cuts  that is 115 x 0.44.

Organic lambs:
There is a demand for organic lambs by the health conscious public. This need can only be satisfied by the small sheep raiser. Big farms have more of a disease problem than a small farm, so they often use medicated feed as a preventive measure – even when disease is not present.

Marketing meat as organic requires certification through a designated organic certification organization. The process can be expensive and take a lot of your time, that is another reason why it is only valuable for a small scale flock. If you are selling your lambs from a really small flock, your customers already know you, so they shouldn’t need to see the certified label to feel comfortable with both you and your meat.

In order to be certified as "organic" you will be required to provide evidence that all crops raised on your farm for feed are free from most chemical pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers. You will also have to provide paper work that all purchased feeds were certified as organic. The use of medications, including wormers, is another restriction to investigate.

Mutton:
Whereas selling lambs that delicate and tender is easy, selling the meat of an aging ewe or an extra ram is not quite so easy because the meat of a sheep older than 1 year is termed "mutton". To many people, the term mutton implies tough meat with a strong taste. However, the health conscious public is becoming aware that it is very digestible, and therefore good meat for people having gastrointestinal problems. This is because animals raised on grass have a high concentration of conjugated linoleic acid which is a naturally occurring chemical that is becoming recognized as being a good antioxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-heart disease agent. 

Mutton for pet food:
If you have a really old ram or ewe, probably the best way not to waste its meat is to use it for pet food. If you wish you could also grind it and sell it as premium dog or cat food which can be profitable.

Carcass hanging:
Researchers in Texas University, USA have developed a method of carcass hanging that improves the tenderness of most of the larger and important muscles of the loin and round, most of the steaks and roast.

The procedure is that of suspending the carcass from the aitchbone within an hour after slaughter. The trolley hook must be sterilized before inserting in the aitchbone on the slaughter floor.

By using this procedure straight after slaughter, the meat is as tender after 24 hours of chilling as if it were aged for a full week, and further aging improves the tenderness. There is no extra equipment to buy, and the tenderness of many important cuts is greatly improved.


CHEESE MADE WITH SHEEP'S MILK
Cheese made from sheep's milk is a sought after commodity, especially in health food stores, and you can expect a good return.

The milk of sheep is high in solids, so it yields about twice the amount of cheese as cow milk. Per 100 pounds (45 kg) of milk, sheep milk gives about 20 pounds (9 kg) of cheese, whereas goat milk yields 14 pounds (6.4 kg) and cow milk produces 10 pound (4.5 kg).

In Europe, sheep raisers let their lambs nurse for 30 days and then wean them and milk the ewes. You could also consider weaning lambs 2 or 3 days old and feeding them artificially which would give you a greater total yield of milk. Twice-a-day milking results in the most milk. You could also milk the ewe once a day in the morning and allow the lambs to nurse later in the day. As we have stressed throughout this book, nutrition is the key to success and is an absolute necessity for a high volume of milk. 

The milk of sheep has an advantage over cows, and that advantage is that it can be frozen with no loss of quality. This means you can save the milk and use it as and when in demand.

PELTS
A pelt is the skin of a slaughtered sheep that still has wool on it. Pelts are another by-product that can bring in a nice income. Prime, #1 pelts are from lambs that have been sheared 4 to 6 weeks before slaughter. This shearing prior to slaughter provides a pelt that is perfect for use as "shearling" lining for slippers or jackets.

If you are selling your lambs through conventional markets, you can expect to be paid extra for a good "shearling" quality pelt. If you have slaughtered a lamb/s for your own use, or for cottage-industry sale, their pelts can be made into slippers and other hand-crafts and you can earn a good income from these sales..

A first quality pelt is one that has been free from the attack of ticks. The dark bumps caused by tick bites are called "cockle" in pelts and leather. If you decided to make jackets lined with wool from a tanned pelt, the outer surface can be sanded to produce a excellent suede finish. But, on the other hand, cockle defects seriously impair the softness and appearance of the leather.

If a sheep was cut or nicked during shearing, these nicks/cuts can show up in the pelt, and its value falls sharply. If you hire someone to do the shearing for you, you should tell him that you intend saving the pelts. Tell the shearer that you will give him a bonus for every nick/cut free pelt and your shearer will take greater care during the shearing process.

Skinning should also be done with care to avoid cutting the hide. Once again let the skinner know that you will give him a bonus for unblemished skins. Have the skins hanged over a railing, skin side up, so they cool quickly. A good way in which to dispose of the offal, trimmed fat, intestines etc. is to bury it in a large compost pile if the pile has lots of dry, carbonaceous materials, for example dried leaves, straw, sawdust, or shredded paper.

Machine washable pelts which have been prepared using special tanning technique are popular with bedridden people, this is because pelts distribute pressure evenly,  and neither wrinkle nor chafe. They also contribute to the prevention of bedsores or ulcers.

Care of Pelts:
You may decide to send your pelts to a commercial tannery, or do it at home. Fleshing out pelts is not the most pleasant of jobs and will be discussed in the next section. If you send them to a commercial tanner, care must be taken as soon as you get them home.

If you decide to do it yourself, attach an 8 inch (20 cm) PVC pipe about 4 feet long (1.2m) between two sawhorses and work sitting on a kitchen stool. The pipe provides a good contact surface to scrape against. 

If for one reason or another you decide not to tan the skin the day it comes off the sheep, you should salt it heavily so that it can be tanned later on, because salt draws the moisture out of the skin. As soon as you get the pelt, rub common pickling salt – do not be tempted to use products that are labeled "deicer salt" – into the flesh side. You will need 5 pounds (2.3 kg) or more of granular salt on large skins, or 2 pounds (0.9 kg) or more on lambs. This job must be done thoroughly, and don't forget to salt the edges as well. Once this is done spread the pelt out to dry, flesh side up.

When salting several hides, stack them leather side up and raise them off the floor on boards after they have been salted. Stress is placed on doing a very good job on fleshing and salting a pelt. If it is otherwise you will have a pretty nasty mess on your hands. A well fleshed, salted hide can be stored for a long time.

After 3 – 4 days your hides will be ready to be taken to a tannery. Pack the pelts, salted and folded inside a large carton. Don't forget to write your address and phone number and put it inside the box. You should also state whether you want "natural" or "washable tanning" which will cost a little more. 

Fleshing pelts:
Well, this is not the most pleasant job in the world, and is best done straight away.

To flesh a pelt:
1. Scrape the flesh side with a heavy, very sharp knife to remove the meat, tissue, fat and grease. Try to get all of the "stuff" off without damage to the skin or exposing the hair roots.
2. Scrape off all tough membranes and inner muscular flesh coat. If it is not properly cleaned then you run the risk of bug damage or rot.

Don't forget, if you can't attend to the pelt immediately, salt it thoroughly as described in the previous section.

Home tanning:
Two of the most practical methods of home tanning are discussed here, and neither of these methods result in washable pelts. Some approaches to tanning are more dangerous than others.

Tanning involves dealing with acid, and the acid must be handled carefully and neutralized well so that it does not remain on the skin and damage it

Preparation for pelt tanning:
No matter whether or not your pelt is fresh or has been salted it will need to be washed before you start the tanning process.
1. If the pelt has been salted, soak it overnight in a large tub of cold water containing 1 cup (236.6 ml) of laundry detergent and 1 cup (236.6 ml) of pine-oil disinfectant and then rinse it in cold water in the morning. If the pelt is fresh there is no need for this step.
2. Remove this water by spinning the pelt in the spin cycle of your washing machine.
3. Now wash it in your washing machine using a short cycle with cool or lukewarm water and detergent – make sure the detergent is dissolved.
4. Rinse.
5. Spin out the water in the spin cycle.

Having done this all the fat, blood, and dirt should have been removed from the pelt and your pelt is ready for tanning.

Salt-Acid Tanning:
You will need a salt acid tanning solution, a plastic drum or plastic garbage can – do not use a metal container.

Salt-Acid Tanning Solution
For each 1 gallon (3.8 liters) of clear 70 degrees Fahrenheit (21.1 Celsius) water, use 1 pound (0.45 kg) of pickling and canning salt and one of the following acids in the specified amount:
1 ounce (29.6 ml) concentrated sulfuric acid or.
4 ounces (118.3 ml) new battery acid or
Half a cup (118.3 ml) sodium bisulfate dry crystals or
2 ounces (59.1 ml) oxalic acid crystals.

There are several acids available but only use one not a combination. The acid is mixed with water and salt for the tanning process. To obtain the best results, the solution should remain around room temperature that is between 65 and 75 degrees Fahrenheit (18.3 and 23.9 degrees Celsius).

Whichever acid you use, it must be measured carefully and stored in a very safe place. If the acid you choose is liquid, use a glass or plastic cup – not metal.

Add the water very slowly, letting the acid enter at the end of the water because adding acid to water is dangerous! Once it has been added stir the mixture with a wooden paddle.

You are ready to begin the tanning process. Immerse the pelt in the tanning solution and push it down with the wooden paddle, and stir slowly. The pelt is left in the solution for at least 5 days. However, the pelt should be left up to 2 weeks if the temperature of the solution does not rise above 75 degrees Fahrenheit (23.9 degrees Celsius. During this period the pelt must be submerged and stirred gently from time to time

The next step is to neutralize the tanning solution:
1. Carefully remove the pelt and spin out the tanning solution in the spin cycle of your top loading washing machine.

2. Rinse the pelt in clear water twice, then spin out the rinse water.
3. Immerse the pelt in a solution of water and borax, using 1 ounce (29.6 ml) of borax for each gallon (3.8 liters) of water.

4. Work the pelt by stirring it frequently for about an hour in this solution, then rinse out in clear water.

5. Spin out the rinse water.

The next step is the drying and softening of the pelt:

Take the pelt out flat, with the flesh side out. With the salt-acid method the pelt is wet, whereas others such as the baking soda-kerosene method are dry. No matter which method you chose, your pelt is now cured, and when it is dry, it is very stiff and will need to be softened.

1. Put the pelt in a frame and apply a thin coat of a product used for water-proofing boots, or a product called neatsfoot oil, to the flesh side. The oil will take about 8 to 10 hours in a warm room to soak in. During this time you can dry out the wool side if necessary by using a fan or hair dryer. Thereafter apply a thin coat of tanning oil or leather dressing on the flesh side.
2. After the tanning oil has soaked in, allow the pelt to dry until it starts showing light-colored places. Remove it from the frame and start the softening process. Stretch the pelt in all directions, and flesh side down, work it over a board to soften the skin as it finishes drying.
3. When it is dry you can sandpaper the flesh side to give a smooth finish. Comb the wool with a coarse teeth or a metal dog comb and finish with one that has finer teeth. If the wool seems too fuzzy and dried out, try rubbing a hair dressing oil, such as a hot oil treatment conditioning product, on your hands, and rub them lightly through the wool, then brush it gently, you may have do to this more than once, keep repeating as necessary.
 
Baking Soda – Kerosene Tanning:
Baking soda and kerosene are both easily available.

To make the mix:
Add 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of baking soda to 1 gallon (3.9 liters) of kerosene – this should be sufficient for one skin. Mix until you have a paste that is about the consistency of cake batter before pouring it into the baking pan.

Application:
Apply the paste evenly, about 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) thick. Apply over the entire pelt, including the edges. The paste is left on the pelt to dry for 1 to 3 weeks, depending upon weather temperatures – it must be completely dried. Now, scrape the paste off the pelt, if any areas still remain greasy, reapply some paste to those areas and let it dry out again. During this process the water and kerosene evaporate, and the oils from the skin are absorbed by the baking soda.

The pelt is now ready for softening. To soften, follow the steps mentioned above in the salt-acid tanning process.

MANURE
The sale of sheep manure can also be a source of income, if you don't use it all on your own garden. The manure of sheep stimulates growth and also adds valuable humus to the soil – something that chemical fertilizers do not. Sheep manure contains more nitrogen, phosphorus and potash than the manure of a horse or cow.
Another advantage of sheep manure is that it does not have the unpleasant smelling sulfides found in cow manure. It is easier to manage as it is in separate pellets or in pellets that hold together in a clump. Whereas other forms of manure need to be aged, sheep's manure does not. It is a good idea to gather manure from paths or places where it does not help to fertilize the pasture. 

Clean the barn twice a year, once in spring time and then again in autumn, the wasted hay and bedding left on the barn floor makes excellent fertilizer because it has absorbed much of the manure and contains valuable nutrients. Because the hay and bedding remained in doors it is not damaged by either rain or sun and is sort after. The manure can be spread in a thick mulch and does not need to be dug in.

SOAP
Preparation:
You can make soap for your family or sell it as handmade soaps to health food stores. A lot of soap can be made from the fat of a lamb or mutton.

Your first step in soap making requires the preparation of the tallow which is another name for lamb or mutton fat:
1. Render the tallow but cutting up chunks of lamb or mutton fat and put it in a large pot, and cook it slowly over a low heat. It is a process that must not be hurried otherwise it will burn. It takes several hours for a large batch. When the tallow is just about melted down, strain it through a cloth.
2. The next step is to purify the tallow. Boil the fat with about twice its volume of water. Strain it, and set it aside to cool. The clean fat will rise in a solid block. When it has cooled and hardened, remove it from the water, turn it upside down, cut into wedges and scrape off the residue of impurities from the bottom. It will last for several weeks in a refrigerator. 
  
Lamb Tallow Soap Formula:
A helping hand makes life easier!

1. Measure 6 pounds (2.7 kg) of clean purified tallow. Heat slowly in a large enamel pan to between 100 and 110 degrees Fahrenheit (37.8 and 43.3 degrees Celsius).
2. Put Two and a half pints (1.2 liters) of water in a smaller enamel pan. Place the pan on a protected surface. Stand back, and slowly pour in one newly opened can of lye not the type used as a chemical drain opener. Lye is a corrosive alkaline substance and should be handled with care, also take care not to inhale the caustic fumes. The lye will heat the water. Allow it to cool to 98 – 100 degrees Fahrenheit (36.7 – 37.8 degrees Celsius). To test the temperature use a candy thermometer suspended from the side of the pan but not touching the bottom.
3. When the lye is at the proper temperature, pour it into a half gallon (1.9 liter) bottle with a long neck using an agate funnel. Now, put the opening of the bottle on the rim of the pot of tallow, and pour the lye mixture very slowly in a thin stream. At the same time, slowly and gently stir the fat and the lye together. The tallow should be at the right temperature (100-110 degrees Fahrenheit (37.8-43.3 degrees Celsius) and the lye poured into it in a very thin stream. Stirring must be done slowly, very gently, and steadily because the soap will separate or curdle and all your hard work ruined. Stir slowly for 20 minutes, thereafter pour into containers lined with brown paper or clean cotton cloth wetted down with water and wrung out. To be able to remove the soap have the paper or cloth folded out over the outside edge, this will make it easy to remove.

Pour the soap into prepared containers and cover with a piece of wood or a heavy piece of cardboard and then with an old blanket, by doing this the soap is kept from cooling too fast. This hardening process takes a day or two in a warm place. As the soap begins to harden it will lose its sheen. After 2 or 3 days before it becomes too hard, remove it from the containers. Cut the soap into separate bars to age for several weeks or months before use. One way to cut the soap up neatly is to use a fine, taut wire wrapped around it and then pulled tight. To age these bars they must be unwrapped so that air can circulate around them for several weeks. Should any liquid appear on or in the soap is lye and you should through the soap away.

Different varieties of soap:
Perfumed soap can be made by adding the oil of lemon, the oil of lavender, or other oil perfumes but not those containing alcohol.  Soap absorbs odors, therefore it can be perfumed easily after it is in bars, and aged at the same time by wrapping it in tissue that has been wet with perfume and dried out.
   
Deodorant soap this soap is made without the use of chemicals. Use up to 2 ounces (59.1 ml) of vitamin E oil in your soap recipe. This is done after stirring in the lye.

Honey complexion soap, add 1 ounce (29.6 ml) of honey and stir it slowly into the soap after adding the lye and before pouring the mixture into the molds.

Laundry soap. To make laundry soap flakes or powder, the soap must be aged for 3 or 4 days. After that, grate it on a vegetable grater. Dry the flakes slowly in the oven set at about 150 degrees Fahrenheit (65.6 Celsius) and stir occasionally. Once the soap is very dry it can be pulverized or just left as flakes.

Dishwashing jelly soap. To make this shave 1 pound (0.5 kg) of hard soap and boil it slowly with 1 gallon (3.8L) of water until it is dissolved. Put it into covered containers.

MUTTON OR LAMB TALLOW CANDLES
Candles can also make you a profit. They also make nice personal gifts.

How to make candle wicks:
Make a good soaking solution from 8 tablespoons (118.3 ml) of borax dissolved with 4 tablespoons (59.1 ml) of salt in 1 quart of water (0.95 liter). Soak a cotton string in the solution for 2 or 3 hours then hang it out to dry.

Lamb or Mutton tallow:
Cut up chunks of mutton or lamb fat, put it in a large pot and fry slowly over a low heat. Skim the fat as it rises to the top. Stir occasionally, do not be tempted to rush the process or the fat will burn. A large batch will take several hours. Once the melting is just about done, strain it through a cloth.

Purifying:
Dissolve 5 pounds (2.3 kg) of alum in 10 quarts (9.46 liters) of water in a large pan, and simmer. Add the tallow, stir and simmer for about an hour, and skim off the fat. This has two benefits. It not only purifies the tallow, but makes a slightly harder texture for use in your candles. When the tallow is cool enough to comfortably touch, strain it through a cloth and set it aside to cool completely and harden, then scrape of the impure layer on the bottom. Now that the tallow has been purified you can store it in a cool place for a week, or so until you are ready to make your candles. It can also be refrigerated or even frozen.

Add a few drops of pine oil or some other scent after the tallow is melted and before dipping or molding to perfume it which will take care of the natural smell of tallow.

Candle dipping:
If you make your tallow candles too long they can droop in hot weather.

Melt the purified tallow then pour it into a wide-mouth jar or container that can be placed in hot water to keep it liquid. Have another jar or container filled with very cold water standing in a pan of ice to keep it cold.

Cut the wick about 6 inches (15.2 cm) longer than you intend your candle to be, and tie one end of the wick to a small stick. Dip the wick first into the hot tallow, take it out and let it harden in the air for a minute. Then dip it in and out of the ice water to harden it. Let it drip thoroughly. This process is repeated several times as the deposit on the wick is thin. If you want to make a tapered candle, don’t dip it all the way to the top each time.


Molded Candles:
It takes less time to make molded candles. You can use plastic or paper cups or whatever comes to mind. If you choose metal molds they should be both oiled and chilled before you pour the tallow into them.  Spray non-metal containers with nonstick baking spray – that is the lecithin-based type – to keep the candles from sticking to the mold. If you haven't got access to this you can use cooking oil with a brush. Tallow candles are best made short and wider in shape, this is because tallow is not as firm as wax.

Don't forget the bottom of the mold will be the top of the candle, so the wick should be threaded out through the bottom and protrude about an inch (2.5 cm). If you are using plastic or paper cups as a mold this is easily done, If you have a wick sticking out of the bottom of the mold, knot it there so you can pull it straight and tight while pouring in the tallow. You might like to fasten it at the top to a wire or stick resting on the top of the mold to keep it straight and centered in the candle while it hardens. If you are using a mold in which you cannot make a hole in the bottom, leave a little coil of extra wick in the bottom so you can pull it out when the candle is removed.

Colored Candles:
For each pound (0.5 kg) of allow, stir in 2 teaspoons (9.8 ml) of powdered household dye and mix well into the liquid tallow 





TABLE OF CONTENTS

Story of the Wolf 

Chapter 1              Getting Started                                                            7     Chapter 2              Breeding and Breeds                                                17
Chapter 3              Pasture, Fences, Equipment & Facilities                27
Chapter 4              Sheep Dogs                                                               38
Chapter 5              Predators: How to Protect your Flock                    42
Chapter 6              Feeds and Feeding                                                   47
Chapter 7              Health and Disease                                                   59
Chapter 8              Possible Problems Relating to Rams,
                                  Ewes & Lambs                                                       83
Chapter 9              Breeding                                                                    96
Chapter 10            Lambing                                                                   106
Chapter 11            Shearing                                                                   126
Chapter 12            Marketing: Fleeces and By-products                    129



QUICK REFERENCE INDEX



BEHAVIOR, 
     Abnormal, 15
     Normal, 15
     Learned behavior, 15, 32 
Emotions and senses, 16
     Hearing, 17
     Sight, 16-17
     Smell, 17
     Taste, 17
     Touch, 17
Social structure of flock, 16
Working with sheep, 17     
 
BREEDS, 17
     Purebreds 17-18
     Crossbreds, 18
Breeds to consider, 18
     Barbados Blackbelly, 18, 28 
     Black Welsh Mountain, 18, 28 
     Border Leicester, 19, 28 
     Blue Faced Leicester, 18, 19, 28 
     Booroola Merino, 19, 28 
     Border Cheviot/Southern Cheviot, 19, 28 
     California Red, 19-20, 28 
     California Variegated Mutant, 20, 28 
     Clun Forest, 20, 28 
     Columbia, 20, 28
     Cormo, 20, 28 
     Corriedale, 20, 28 
     Cotswold, 20-21, 28
     Debouillet, 21, 28 
     Delaine Merino, 21, 28 
     Dorper, 21, 28 
     Dorset, 21, 28 
     East Friesian, 21, 28 
     Finnsheep, 21-22, 28 
     Gulf Coast Native, 22, 28, 64 
     Hampshire, 22, 28, 78 
     Icelandic Sheep, 22-23, 28 
     Karakul, 23, 28 
     Katahdin, 23, 28
     Longwool Leicester, 19, 28 
     Lincoln Longwools, 23, 28 
     Montadale, 23, 28 
     Navajo-Churro, 23, 28 
     North Country Cheviot, 24, 28 
     Oxford, 24, 28 
     Panama, 24, 28 
     Perendale, 24, 28
     Polypay, 24,
, 28      Rambouillet, 24
Romanov, 25, 28     
     Romeldale, 25, 28 
     Romney, 25, 28 
     Scottish Blackface/Black Face Highland, 25-26, 28 
     Shetland, 26, 28
     Shropshire, 26, 28 
     Southdown, 26, 28 
     Saint Croix, 26, 28
     Suffolk, 26, 28, 75 
     Targhee, 25, 26, 28 
     Texel, 27, 28 
     Tunis, 27, 28 
     Wiltshire Horn, 27,28 

BREEDING, 96
Also see Management
Age, 98
Artificial insemination (AI), 99
Daylight, 97
Early lambing, 98
Ewes and rams at breeding time, 100
F gene, 19
Feeds, 105
Health, 98
Late lambing, 98
Nutrition, 54,55, 98
Ram, 98
     Epididymitis, 84 
     Preparation of, 54, 99
     Marking harness, 100-101
     Raising a ram, 101
     Recurrent selection, 101
     S gene, 75
     Scrotal circumference, 10
Gestation, 100
Reproductive Functions, 97 
  97        First estrus,
       Length of estrous cycle, 97
       Length of being on heat, 97
       Ovulation, 97
       Egg fertilization, 97
Successful breeding, 97-98
Weaning, 14
Weather, 98

BUYING SHEEP 7-9
     Age, 9
     Body, 11
     Feet, 12
     Fleece, 11-12
     Health records, 12
     Homecoming, 12,32
     Mucus membranes, 11
     Overall health, 11
     Price, 9
     Respiration, 11
     Shape and size, 10     
     Shape of: 
          Head, 11
          Teeth, 9,10,11
          Mouth, 11
     Skin, 12
     Teeth terminology, 10
          Broken mouth, 10
          Gummers, 10
          Solid mouth, 10
          Spreaders, 10
     Traits, 12-13
           Inherited, 12-13
           Multiple births, 13
           Undesirable, 13
      Udder, 11

CANDLES, 141
     Dipping, 141
     Colored, 142
     Molded, 142
     Purifying, 141
     Tallow, 141
     Wicks, 141

CHEESE, 135-136

EWES, 102-103
Also see Health and Disease
Additional feed – flushing, 103-104
Culling 104 – 105
Ewe lambs, 104
F gene, 19
Tagging, 104
Vaccination, 103

FACILITIES, 34
Buildings, 35
Lambing, 35 – 36
Handling facilities, 32, 36
     Chutes, 36 – 37
     Forcing pen, 36
     Gathering pen, 36 
     Sorting gates, 37

FARM EQUIPMENT, 38

FEEDING FACILITIES & EQUIPMENT, 38
Creep Feeders, 38, 55,65,66,92
Feed trough, 38
Rubber pans, 38

FEEDS AND FEEDING, 47
Digestion, 47 – 48
     Bloat, 48, 71
     Cud, 49
     Last phase of, 49
     Rumen, 48     
     Stomachs, 48- 49
Feeding practices, 53
     Behavior, 53 - 54
     Changes, 54
     Program, 54 – 55
     Schedule, 55
Nutrients, importance of, 51-52
     Carbohydrates, 53
     Fats, 53     
     Protein, 52
     Vitamins and minerals, 52
     Water, 52 - 53
Pregnant ewes feeding chart, 97
Sheep feeding chart, 59
Types of feed, 55
     Alfalfa Hay, 56
     Grain, 55 – 56
     Grain mixtures, 56
     Hay, 56
     Treats, 56 – 57
     Salt and minerals, 57

FENCING, 27, 32
Also see Pastures
Aluminum wire, 33 
Barbed wire, 33
Electric smooth wire, 33
Perimeter, 33
Posts, 34
     Corners and ends, 34
     Fiberglass and plastic, 34
     Metal T, 34
Temporary fencing, 33 – 34
     Polywire, 33
     Polynet, 33
     Soft steel, 33
Wooden rail, 33
Woven wire, 33

GRAZING, 30-31
Also see Pastures
Ideal percentage, 29
Grass, 31, 48
Managed grazing, 31
Movement time of flock, 31
Paddock management, 31
Poisonous plants, 57-58
Orchard management, 32
Toxic substances and waste, 58-59

GUARDIAN ANIMALS, 44
Bonding with sheep, 45 – 46
Dogs, 44
Dog training, 45
Problems, 44 – 45
Puppy, 44

GUARDIAN DOG BREEDS, 46
Also see Sheep Dogs
Akbash, 46
Anatolian Shepherd, 46 
Briards, 46
Great Pyrenees, 46 
Komondor, 46 
Kuvaz, 46 - 47 
Maremma, 47 
Shar Planinetz, 47 
Tibetan Mastiff, 47

HEALTH AND DISEASE, 58-60
Bacteria, disorders, 73
     Blackleg (Clostridium chauvoei), 73 
     Boils (Corynebacterium ovis), 73 - 74 
     Johne's Disease, (pronounced Yown-ees) Mycobactrium
            Paratuberculosis, 74 
     Listeriosis (Listeria monocytogenes), 74 

     Pinkeye (Infectious keratitis), 74 
     Scrapie, 75 
     Spider Syndrome, 75
Disorders, 71
     Bloat, 48, 71
          Treatment of, 71     
     Dietary, 71
     Grass Tetany, 71-72
         Treatment of, 72
Emergency medical chest, 61-62 
Ewes, (also see section Ewes), 84
      Abortion, causes 84 - 85
          Enzootic Abortion (EAE), 85   
          Salmonellosis, 86
          Toxoplasmosis, 86
          Vibriosis, 85 - 86
     Mastitis, 86-87 
     Milk fever (hypocalcemia), 87-88
     Pregnancy problems, (see also lambing) 
          Pregnancy Toxemia – ketosis, 88-89 
          Retained Afterbirth, placenta, 89
          Vaginal prolapse, 89-90
Good health procedures, 60    
     Additions to the flock, 60-61
     Arrival of new sheep, 61
     Good sanitation, 60
     Healthy animals, 60
     Housing and space, 60 
     Importance of nutrition, 54,55, 60
      Isolation, 61  
     Medications, 61
     Quarantine, 61
     Vaccination, 61 
     Immunization, 83
Hoof problems and care, 75
     Bumble Foot, 78
     Foot examination, 75
     Footbath, 75-76
     Foot Rot, 76-77 
     Foot Scald, 77-78
     Hoof trimming, 76
     Lameness, 75
     Limping, 75
Illness, underlying causes, 63-64
Lambs, also see Lamb section
Medication, how to give, 75
     Dips, 78
     Oral medical, 78
     Oral powder, 78
     Oral liquid, 78 
     Oral pastes, 78
     Pour-ons, 78     
     Spray/Sprinkle on, 78
     Injections, 79
       Intracutaneous, 80
       Intradermal injection, 80
       Interamuscular injection, 80 
       Intramammary injection, 80
       Intranasal, 78 
       Intraperitoneal injection, 81
       Intravenous injection (IV), 78
       Subcutaneous injections, 79-80
       Uterine boluses, 78
Medications administration of, 81
     Antibiotics, 81
     Antisera, 82.
      Bacterins, 82 
     Biologicals, 81-82
     Parasite preparations, 81 
     Toxoids, 82
     Vaccines, 82-83
Natural defense system, 62-63
Parasites, 64 
Parasites, external, 68
      Sheep ticks, 68 - 69 
     Lice, 69 
     Maggots, 69 - 70 
     Nose bots, 70 
     Scab Mites, 70 – 71
Parasites internal, 64-65 
     Anemia, 65
     Bottle jaw, 65  
     Coccidiosis, 66
     Control, 66 
      Deworming,12, 62,66-67 
     Identification of infestations, 65 
     Liver flukes, 65-66  
     Lungworms, 65
     Potbelly, 65
     Scours, 65    
    Targeted worming, 62, 67-68
     Tapeworms, 65-66,92     
     Wool break, 65 
                Worm resistance, 67
     Parasite preparations, 81    
Rams, 83
     Epididymitis, 83-85  
     Orchitis, 84 
     Pizzle rot, 84 
     Ulcerative Dermatosis, 84
Sickness, recognizing, 62
     Homeopathic Medicines (Herbal), 62
     Urine samples, 62
Temperature, 62
Unapproved drugs, 83
Viruses, 72
     Bluetongue, 72
     Ovine Progressive Pneumonia, 72-73
     Soremouth (ecthyma) 72

LAMBING, 106, 110
Birthing positions, 109
     Both legs protrude, but the head is turned back, 111   
      Breech Birth, 112
     Four legs coming at once, 113
     Head coming out before one or both legs, 111    
     Hips that get stuck, 111      
     Hind feet coming out first, 112 
      Large head or shoulders, 110-111     
     Lying crosswise, 112
     Normal birth, 110
     One leg bent back, 111
     Twins that decide to be born at the same time, 113 
     Twins, with one coming out backwards, 113 
     Two legs bent back, 111
     Umbilical cord, 110
Feeds during breeding, 105
Last month before lambing, 105-106
     Ketone test, 88, 106
Lambing time, 107-108
     Equipment, supplies, 108
     When to help the ewe, 108
          What to do, 109
          Ringwomb, 109
     When to call the veterinarian, 113 
Preparation for lambing, 106
     Shearing, 107
     Crotching, 107
     Facing, 107     

LAMBS, NEWBORN, 113
     Colostrum, importance of, 49-50, 114
     Ear tags, 116
     Early feeding problems, 114-115
           Adequate milk supply?, 51       
           Emergency milk formula, 50-51
     Feeding, 114
           Bottle feeding, 51     
     Marking, 116
     Multiple births, 116
Baby lambs, care of 124
      Castration 125
       Docking, 125
       Hidden testicles 125
       Short scrotum, 125      
       Vaccination, 124,
  Orphan lambs, 119-120
        Bottle feeding, 122-123
        Feeding multiple birth lambs, 123          
        Coaxing a ewe to accept, 122
        Forceful acceptance, 120-121
        Grafting, 120, 121, 122
  Problems/Illness, 117
       Acidosis, 91
       Constipation, 91
       Emergency feeding, stomach tube, 118-119
          How to insert stomach tube, 119
       Enterotoxemia, 92
       Entropion, 92
       Eyelids, 119
       Frozen lamb, how to warm up, 118
       Hypothermia, 117
       Navel Ill, 93
       Parasites, 64-65
       Polio, 93-94
       Pneumonia, 93
       Resuscitation, 118
       Scours (diarrhea), 94
       Tetanus (lockjaw), 95
       Urinary Calculli, 95-96
       Yellow scours, 94-95
       Weak lambs 118       
       White Muscle Disease, 96     
       

MANAGEMENT, 13
Extensive system of management, 14
Intensive system of management, 13-14 
Sheep production systems, 14 
     Accelerated lambing, 14
             Autumn lambing, 14 
     Early spring, confinement lambing, 14 
     Late-spring pasture lambing, 15 
     Organic raising, 15,135 
     Phase lambing, 14
     Winter-confinement lambing, 14 
Sustainable system of management, 13

PASTURES, 27
 Also see Grazing
Foraging capability and capacity, 28-29
   Bare spots, 30   
   Forage plants, 29-30
   Frost seeding, 30
   Fertilizers in high rainfall areas, 30
   Fertilizers in humid areas, 29
   How many sheep per acre, 29   
   Ideal pasture, 29
   Native pasture, 28
   Overgrowth, 30
   Poisonous plants, 57-58
   Tame pasture, 28
   Toxic substances and waste, 58-59

MARKETING, 129
Cheese, 135-136
Fleece, 133
     Australian locker hooking 133-134     
     Handspun yarn, 133
     Scraps, 134
Manure, 139
Meat and milk, 134
     Carcass hanging     
     Organic lambs, 15, 134-135
     Mutton, 135
     Mutton for pet food, 135     
     Type of cut % return, 134
Pelts, 136
     Care of, 136-137
     Fleshing pelts, 137
     Preparation for tanning, 137
         Home tanning, 137
         Baking soda/kerosene tanning, 139
         Salt acid tanning, 138-139     
Soap, 139-140
Preparation, 140
     Deodorant, 140
     Different varieties of, 140
     Dishwashing jelly, 141
     Formula, lamb tallow, 140     
     Honey complexion, 141
     Laundry soap, 141
     Perfumed, 140
Wool, 129
     Carding, 133
         How to, 133
     Colored fleeces, 131-132
     Cleaning fleeces, 132
     Dry fleece, how to, 133
     Evaluating wool, 130
     Hand spinners, 131
     Marketing tips, 131

PREDATORS, 42
Birds of prey, 43
Dogs, predator, 43
Discouraging, 42-43
Also see Guardian Animals
Fox, wolves, 43,44
Protection of flock, 42
Victimization, signs of, 43
     
RAMS, 
Artificial insemination (AI), 99
Battering ram, 101-102
     Ram shield, 102
     Hobbling, 102
     Yoke, 102
Breeding time, 100
Dominant, rams, 16
Preparation before breeding, 99
Raising a ram, 101
Recurrent ram selection, 101
Scrotal circumference, 10
 
SHEARING, 126
Blades, how to sharpen, 126-127
Preparation, 127
Services, 129
Shearing, how to, 127
     20 steps, 127-128
     Handling sheep, 129
     Suggestions, 128

SHEEP DOGS, 38-39
See also Guardian Dogs
       Characteristics, 39-40
     Herding dogs, 39
Breeds, 40
     Driving, 40
     Gathering, 40 
      Tending, 40 
Commands, basic, 42
Selection, 40
     Puppy, 40-41 
        Inoculations, 41 
        Training, 41 
     Trained dog, 42


WEIGHING, 37
Estimating weight, 37 
Restraining Equipment, 37-38 
     Gambrel restraint, 38
     Sheep chair, 38     
     Turning cradle, 38
      .


  


 
 
GENERAL INDEX

A
Abortion, 16,47,74,84-86,103
Abomasums, 48
Abscesses, 73,77-78
Accelerated lambing, 13,14
Acidosis,54,91
Acorns, 57
Adoption coat, 120
Afterbirth, 89
Age, 9
   Breeding, 25, 97, 98
     Determining by teeth, 9,10
   Marketing, 101
Aluminum wire fencing, 33 
Artificial insemination, 99
Alfalfa, 29, 31, 48, 56, 104
Amniotic fluid, 7, 109
Anemia, 11, 52, 64, 65, 68
Anoxia, 108
Antibiotics, 62-64, 72-74, 78-81, 84, 87, 90, 93, 112
Antibodies, 49-50, 63, 82, 92, 93, 114, 118
Antigen, 82
Antiseptic, 78, 90, 109, 111
   Iodine, 62, 78, 81, 93, 208, 109
      Umbilical cord, 110
      Navel 122
      Docking and castration 125
Antisera, 82, 125
Appetite loss, 54, 62, 66
Apples, 32, 56, 89
    Apple seed, 32, 58
Artificial respiration, 118
Autumn lambing, 13-14,27 

B
Bacteria, 48, 51, 63, 64, 73, 78, 79, 82
   Bacteria, disorders, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86, 92, 93, 94, 95, 103, 110, 124
Bacterins, 82
Barbados Blackbelly, 18, 19, 28
Barbed wire fence, 32, 33
Barns, see facilities, 9, 14, 16, 34, 35, 36, 38, 56, 60, 63, 68, 70, 75, 93, 107, 124, 134, 140
Battering rams, 101. 102
Behavior
  Abnormal, 15
  Emotions and senses, 16, 17
   Feeding, 53, 54
  Normal, 15
  Sickness, 62
Birth defects, 57, 58, 72
Blackleg, 73
Bloat,
  Danger, 32, 35, 48, 54, 71,
  Signs of, 71
  Treatment of, 71, 93
Blowflies, 69, 70
Bluefaced Leicester, 18, 28
Bluetongue, 72
Body, shape and size, 7, 10, 11, 20, 22, 23, 99
Boils, 73-74
Bolus, 48, 49, 62, 78, 79, 93, 113
Booroola Merino, 19, 28
Border Cheviot, 19, 28
Border Leicester, 18, 19, 28
Bottle-feeding, 9, 50, 51, 60, 94, 95, 108, 113, 115, 116, 118, 122, 123, 124
Bottle Jaw, 65
Bowel movement, 62
Breech birth, 112
Breeding, 7-10,16-18,20-24,53-55,75,83-86,90,92, 96-101, 103-105,124-125,130-132 
Broken mouth, 10
Bronchitis, 65
Bumble foot, 78
Burdizzo, 124-125
Butchering, 14,22,61,35 
Butting, 100,102,121
Buying sheep, 7-9,12,18,41,61,65,99

C
Cafeteria feeders, 124
Calcium deficiency, 87
Calcium gluconate, 62, 88
California Red, 19-20,28
California Variegated Mutant, 20, 28
Campylobacter fetus, 86
Candle making, 23,141-142
Carbohydrates, 52-53,91
Carcass, 24-26,44,135
Carding, 133
Carpet wool, 23
Castration, 70,95,96,98,124,125
Cats, 86
Cattle supplements, problems, 52, 80
Cecum, 49
Certification, organic, 15,135
Cheese, 21,70,134,136
Chlamydia psittaci, 83,103
Chutes, 36,37,39
Clogs, 32
Clipping, see shearing 30,31,68,81,126
Clostridium chauvoei , 73
Clostridium perfringens, 92
Clostridium species, 74,103
Clover, 29,48,104
Clun Forest, breed, 20,28
Coats, 118,120,122
Coccidiosis, 66
Cockle, 84,136
Colic, 95
Collars, 43.45.116
Colostrum, 49,50,73,93,114-119,122-124
Columbia breed, 2, 28
Confinement, lambing, 14,15,16 
Conformation, 7,10,20,22,23,99
Constipation, 62,91,94
Cormo, 20,28,131
Corner posts, 34
Corriedale, 20, 28
Corynebacterium ovis, 73,74
Corynebacterium renale, 84
Cotswold, 20-21, 28
Coyotes, 42,43,46
Creep feeders, 14,38,55,65,92
Crimp, 20,130
Crossbreed, 8,18,19,22,75
Crotching, 107 
Cryptorchidism, (hidden testicles) 107
Cud, 49,107
Culls, 9,73,90,104,105

D
Dairies, 21
Dangle stick, 45
Debouillet, 21, 28,
Deep bedding, 36
Deficiency diseases, 71,87,89,91,96
Delaine Merino, 21,28
Dental pad, 72
Diarrhea, see scours
Diatomaceous earth, 62
Dichelobacter nodosus, 75,77
Dietary disorders, 71
Diseases, and signs of 11,12,61,62,66,72-74,84-89, 91-96,106,115
Disinfectants, and uses, 62,63,76-81, 91,110,124,125,138
Docking, 22,95,98,124,125
Dogs, 13,15,17,35,42,43
   Commands, 42
   Gathering, 40
   Driving, 40
   Guardian, 44-47
   Selecting, 40-41
   Sheep/herding dogs, 38-42
   Tending, 40
   Trained, 42
Dominance, flock, 16, 100-102
Donkeys, guardian, 16,44
Dorper, breed, 21, 28
Dorset, breed, 21,28
Dry lot, 14
Dry matter, 53, 59,97

E
Ear tags, 106,116,117
East Friesian breed, 21
Ecthyma, (soremouth), 72
Edema, 74
Elastrator, 124-126
Electric fencing, 15,31-34
Electrolytes, 94-95, 124
Emasculator, (Burdizzo), 123-125
Emergency formula, newborn lamb milk, 50,51,122-123
Emergency medical supplies, 61-62
Emotions and senses, 16-17
   Dogs, 97
Energy, nutrients, 30,31,52,53,59,88,91,97,106,117,118
Enterotoxemia, 54,82-83,92.96,106,114,124
Entropion, 92
Environment, 11-18,31,36,49,53,60-63,68,74-77,115,118
Enzootic abortion (EAE), 85-86,103
Enzyme linked immunosorbent (ELISA), 74
Epididymitis, 7,83,85
Estrous cycle, 97,98
Ewe bearing retainers, 62,90
Ewe lambs, 13,14,17,36,90,98,103,104,125
   Estrus start of, 98
   Flushing, 104    
Ewes breeding, 12,27,54-55,83,96,98,100
   Feed chart, 97, 105-6
   Types of feed, 55,56,57
    Vaccination, 103
Extensive management, 13-16, 23
Eye problems,13

F
Facilities,
  Barns, 14,16,35-38,5,60,63,68,75,93,134,140
  Buildings, 8,14,34,35,60
  Creep feeders, 14,38,55,65,66,92
  Forcing pen, 36  
  Gathering pen,  36,37
  Handling pens, 15,34-36
  Holding pens, 12
  Lambing pens, 35,36,93,107,116,
  Scales, 37
Facing, 107
Feed,  
  Digestion, 47 – 48
     Bloat, 48,71
     Cud, 49
     Dietary disorders, 71
     Last phase of, 49
     Rumen, 48     
     Stomachs, 48- 49
  Feeding practices, 53
     Behavior, 53 - 54
     Changes, 54
     Program, 54 – 55
     Schedule, 55
  Nutrients, importance of, 51-52
     Carbohydrates, 53
     Fats, 53     
     Protein, 52
     Vitamins and minerals, 52
     Water, 52 - 53
  Pregnant ewes feeding chart, 97
  Rams before breeding, 55,97,105 
  Sheep feeding chart, 59
    Types of feed, 55
     Alfalfa Hay, 56
     Grain, 55 – 56
     Grain mixtures, 56
     Hay, 56
     Treats, 56 – 57
     Salt and minerals, 57
Feed troughs, 38,86
Feet, see foot problems
Felting, 23,129
Fences, 
  Barbed wire, 33  
  Corners and ends, 34
  Electric, 15,31-34
  Fiberglass, 34
  Perimeter, 33  
  Plastic, 34  
  Posts, 34 
  Smooth wire, 33
  Temporary, 33-34
     Polynet, 34
     Polywire, 33
     Soft steel electric cable, 34
   Wooden rail, 33
   Woven wire, 33
Fermentation, 48,74,91
Fertility, 13,18,20,23,28,29,47,100
97        Length of being on heat, 97
       Ovulation, 97
       Egg fertilization, 97
Fertilizers, 13,29-31.36.59,63,96,135,139,140
Fetus, 85,86,88,94
Finnsheep breed, 21-24, 28,116,124,131,
  Bottle-feeding, 50, 51, 60, 94, 95, 108, 113, 115, 116, 118, 122, 123, 124
  Cafeteria feeding, 124
  Multiple births, 35
Fleece, 7,11,13,19-27,37,70,99,101,106-107,126-127,129-31
  Preparation of, 132-134
Flies, 12-13,69-70,91,98,124-125,128
Flushing, 54,103-104
Flystrike, 69,70,84,91,127
Footbath, 75-77,105
Foot problems, 28,77-78
  Foot rot, 12,25,61,76-78
  Foot scald, 77-78 
  Hooves, 12,36,61-61,75-78,1002,129
Forage,
  Ability to, 27-28
  Plants, 28-31
Forbs, 29
Forcing pens, 36
Forward creep-grazing, 65
Fostering, see orphans
Fostering/adoption coats, 120
Founder,(Acidosis), 54,91
Fox, 44
Frozen lambs (very cold), 118
Fungi, 48,63-64,81
Fusobacterium necrophorum, 76

G
Gambrel restraints, 38
Gathering pens, 36,37
Genetic disorder, 7,75,90
Genetic diversity, 99
Genetics,
   Breeding, 13-16, 83,99
   Fertility, 13,18,20,23,25,47
   Twins or more, 13,19,20,21,25,27,88,99,104
   Wool color, 19-22,26,27,130-3
   Wool production, 18-27, 106,126,131
Gestation, 8,22,74,90,07,100,115
Glucose injection, 108,118
Grafting, 120-122
Grain, see also feeds, 38,47,48,52,53,59,78,86,88-89,91-92,96
  Breeding, during, 99
  Flushing, during, 103
  Milk, effects, 116,123
  Pregnancy, during, 105-6, 108
Grass,
  Advantage of, 48
  Antioxidant, 135
  Bare spots, 30  
  Bloat, 48, 71
  Conversion, 27  
  Drought/overgrazing, 57
  Older sheep, 10  
  Paddock management, 31-35, 66  
  Parasites, 66-67,98
  Pasture, 22,28-29
  Prior to pregnancy, 54
  Rams, 84
  Vitamin content, 56
Grass Tetany, 72
Grazing, see forage and pasture 30-31
  Forward creep, 65
  Managed grazing, 31
Grease wool, 13,32,137
Greenhouse barns, (hooped) 35
Guardian animals, 42,44
Guardian dogs, see dogs
Gulf Coast Native, breed, 22,28,64

H
Haemonchus contortus, 64
Hampshire, breed, 22,28,75,78
Handling facilities, see facilities
Hand shears, 125-127
Hand spinners, wool for, 23,24,131
Hay,
  Alfalfa, 56
  Contaminated, 59
  Digestion, 48
  Dry, 12,48
  Fertilizer, used as,140
  Lactation, during, 55,116
  Lambs ration, 91-92
  Legume hay, 84
  Pregnancy, during, 53,56
  Primary source, as, 55
  Selenium deficiency in, 96
  Storage, 35,36
Head, conformation, 11
  Birthing, 10,35,110-3
  Fighting, 16,70,100,102
Health, see nutrition, diseases
   Buying, when, 7,9,60-61
   Wool, affect on, 11
Hearing, 17
Heart, 43, 64,118 
Heat, on, see estrus cycle
Heat lamps, 93,108,114,117
Heat surge in lambs, 123
Herding dogs see dogs
Hobbling, 102
Hog Island, breed, 28
Holding pens, see facilities
Homemade Electrolyte solution, 94,95
Homestead flocks, 13
Hoop houses see greenhouses
Hooves, see foot problems
Hybrid, vigor, 18
Hydrogen peroxide, 62,77
Hypocalcemia, milk fever, 87,110
Hypoglycemia, 106
Hypothermia, see frozen lamb, 63,117

I
Icelandic, breed, 22-23,28
Illness, see disease
Immune system, 49,50,60,63,66,74,82,83,86,93,114,122,124
Immunization shots, 83
Inbreeding, 8,18,99,132
Indigestion, 55,91
Infertility, 98,100,101
Infestation, 64-69, 128
Inherited, 12,99,132
Injections, 51,62,72,78-84,87-88,91-92,96,105,108,117-119,126
  Intracutaneous injection, 80
  Intradermal injection, 80
  Intrammamary injection 80         
  Intramuscular injection, 80
  Intraperitoneal injection, 81
  Subcutaneous injection, 62,79-80 
Insulation, wool as, 118,134
Intensive management, 13-14,16,31,34
Intestines, 49,64,65,86,93,114,136

Iodine, 78,81,93,108,109,110,122
Ivomec, 82

J
Johne's disease, 74
Jugs, see also facilities, lambing pen, 35,93,109,116
Jumping sheep and lambs, 15,32,102-103

K
Karakul, breed,23,28
Katahdin breed, 23,28
Keds (sheep ticks), 11,68-69
Keratitis, (Pink eye), 74-75
Ketones, 88,106
Ketosis, (pregnancy toxemia), 88-89

L
Lactation, 4,55,84,96,97
Lamb coats, 118,120
Lambing, 106-110
  Birthing positions, 109
     Both legs protrude, but the head is turned back, 111   
      Breech Birth, 112
     Four legs coming at once, 113
     Head coming out before one or both legs, 111    
     Hips that get stuck, 111      
     Hind feet coming out first, 112 
      Large head or shoulders, 110-111     
     Lying crosswise, 112
     Normal birth, 110
     One leg bent back, 111
     Twins that decide to be born at the same time, 113 
     Twins, with one coming out backwards, 113 
     Two legs bent back, 111
     Umbilical cord, 110
  Feeds during breeding, 105
  Last month before lambing, 105-106
  Ketone test, 106
  Lambing time, 107-108
     Equipment, supplies, 108
     When to help the ewe, 108
          What to do, 109
          Ringwomb, 109
          When to call the veterinarian, 113 
      Preparation for lambing, 106
        Facing, 107
        Crotching, 107
        Shearing, 107
Lambs, newborn, 113     
Colostrum, importance of, 49-50, 114
     Ear tags, 116
     Early feeding problems, 114-115
           Adequate milk supply?, 51       
           Emergency milk formula, 50-51
     Feeding, 114
           Bottle feeding, 51     
     Marking, 116
     Multiple births, 116
  Baby lambs, care of 124 
      Castration 125
       Docking, 125
       Hidden testicles 125
       Short scrotum, 125      
       Vaccination, 124,
      Orphan lambs, 119-120
        Bottle feeding, 122-123
        Feeding multiple birth lambs, 123          
        Coaxing a ewe to accept, 122
        Forceful  acceptance, 120-121
        Grafting, 120, 121, 122
    Problems/Illness, 117
      Acidosis, 91
      Constipation, 91
      Emergency feeding, stomach tube, 118-119
          How to insert stomach tube, 119
      Enterotoxemia, 92
      Entropion, 92
      Eyelids, 119
      Frozen lamb, how to warm up, 118
      Hypothermia, 117
      Navel Ill, 93
      Polio, 93-94
        Cause of, 93
      Pneumonia, 93
      Resuscitation, 118
     Scours (diarrhea), 94
         Cause of, 63-65
         Electrolytes, 94-95
         Lambs, affected, 61,94
         Signs of, 12
         Yellow, 94
     Tetanus (lockjaw), 95
      Urinary Calculli, 95-96
             Weak lambs, 118
     White Muscle Disease, 96     
Lameness and limping, 12,73,65,76,78,80,91
Late-spring pasture lambing, 15
Learned behavior, 15
Legumes, 28-29,48,52,71-72,84,104
Leicester Longwools, 23,28
Lice, 68/69
Lincoln Longwools, 23,28
Listeria monocytogenes (Listeriosis), 74
Liver flukes, 65/66
Locker hooking, 134
Lockjaw see tetanus
Lower jaw, 11
Lungs, 35,64,88,109,114,118
  Resuscitation, 119
Lungworms, 7, 65
Luster, 130

M
Maggots, 12,68-70,78,124
Magnesium, 29,56,72
   Deficiency, 71/72
Malignant edema, 74
Management, 13
    Extensive system, 14
    Intensive system of management, 13-14 
    Orchard, 32
    Paddock, 31  
  Sheep production systems, 14 
    Accelerated lambing, 14
            Autumn lambing, 14 
    Early spring, confinement lambing, 14 
    Late-spring pasture lambing, 15 
    Organic raising, 15,135 
    Phase lambing, 14
    Winter-confinement lambing, 14 
  Sustainable system of management, 14
Manure, 7,8,12,32,60,69,74-75,76,78,79,91,114,124
   Lambs, 94
   Nutrients, in 139
Marketing, 129,131,135
Marking harness, 101,104
Mastitis, 64,78,81,86-87,115
Meat,
  Lamb,134,135
  Mutton, 23,135 
  Organic, 15,135 
  Tenderness, 101,135-136
Meconium, 94,114
Medications, see antibiotics, emergency medical supplies injections, vaccine,vaccination
Merino, breeds see Delaine and Booroola
Micron system, 130
Milk,
  Bottle feeding, 51
  Cheese, 136 
  Colostrum, 49-50
  Emergency formula, 50-51
  Milk insufficiency detection, 51
Milk fever, 87,110
Milking after abortion or stillbirth, 50
Mites, 68, 70-71
Molasses, 56-57,116,120,122
Monocots, 29
Montadale, breed, 23,28
Mouth shape, 11
Mucous membrane, 65,72
Mulch, 140
Multiple births, 13,18,23,35,47,89,109,116,123
Mutton, see meat

N
Native pasture, 28-29
Navajo-Churro, 23-24,28
Navel ill, 23
Nitrogen, 29,139
Normal behavior, see behavior
North Country Cheviot, 23,28
Nose bots, 68,70
Nutrition, pre-breeding, 54-55 also see feed

O
Oats, 55-56,89,106
Observation, importance of, 15, 39,47,61,77,80,89,92,101
Obligatory charity penalty, hadith, 168
Offal, as compost, 136
Open face, breeds with, 19,21-25      
Ovine Progressive Pneumonia, (OPP), 72-73
Orchards, management, 32,58
Orchitis, 84
Organic lambs, 15, 134-135
Oxford breed, 24,28
Oxytocin, 51,89,90
      
P
Paddocks, 21-35, 66
Panama breed, 24,28
Paralysis, 74,96
Parasites, 64 
  Breeds resistant to, 18,22,26
   External, 68
      Sheep ticks, 68 - 69 
     Lice, 69 
     Maggots, 69 - 70 
     Nose bots, 70 
     Scab Mites, 70 – 71
  Internal, 64-65 
     Anemia, 65
     Bottle jaw, 65  
     Coccidiosis, 66
     Control, 66 
      Deworming,12, 62, 66-67 
     Identification of infestations, 65 
     Liver flukes, 65-66  
     Lungworms, 65
     Potbelly, 65
     Scours, 65    
    Targeted worming, 62, 67-68
     Tapeworms, 65,66,92     
     Wool break, 65 
                Worm resistance, 67
     Parasite preparations, 81
Pasture, see, orchards, paddocks, 27            
   Foraging capability and capacity, 28-29
   Bare spots, 30   
   Forage plants, 29-30
   Frost seeding, 30
   Fertilizers in high rainfall areas, 30
   Fertilizers in humid areas, 29
   How many sheep per acre, 29   
   Ideal pasture, 29
   Native pasture, 28
   Overgrowth, 30
   Tame pasture, 28
   Toxic substances and waste, 58-59
Pathogens, 63
Pecking order, 16
Pelts, 129,136-139
Perendale breed, 24,28
Peritonitis, 81
Phase lambing, 14
Phosphorus, 29,56,59,95,97,139
Photosensitivity, 98
Pink eye, (infectious keratitis) 74-75
Pizzle rot, 84
Plastic fence posts see fencing
Pneumonia, 7,63,65,93,107       
    Lambs, in 35-36,109,114,124
    Ovine progressive, 72,73
    Vaccine, 85
Poisonous plants, 57-58
Poisons, 60,66,89
Polio, 93-94
Polypay, breed, 24,104
Polywire fences, see fences
Portable structures, 35,36
Potassium, 29,56,72,95
Potatoes, sprouted, 57
Potbelly, 65
Predators see guardian animals 42-46
Pregnancy, 41,47,55,56,61,72,78,85-7,96,103-106
  Ketone, 88,106   
  Toxemia, 57,78,82,87-89,106-107
   Vaccine, 92,103
Prolapse, 55,61-62,65,89-90,105,107-9,125
Propylene glycol, 61,89
Protein, see also nutrition,  52, 55-57,97

Q
Quarantine, 12,61,77,86

R
Rambouillet, breed, 20-28, 104
Ram lamb, 96,101,126
Rams, see also breeds, 83,101
  Battering, 101 
  Breeding, 7-10, 16,53-55,97,99,100,103-104,132
  Castration,  125,126
  Feet, 61
  Fighting, 16
  Infertility, 98, 101,104
  Illness, 83-85,95,98-9,103
  Ram marking harness,101,104
  Recurrent ram selection,101-102
  Scrotal circumference, 10
  Shields, 102    
  Smell,17
Ration,
  Feeding program, 54-57,59,97,106
  Illness, 54,66,95,96,92
  Protein, 52
  Selenium, 91
Record keeping, 8-9, 12,15,41,60-61,104-105,116
Reproductive functions, 97   
Respiration, 11.118
Respiratory disease, 35,41,8,85
Restraining devices, 37-38
Resuscitation, lambs, 118-119
Retained placenta, 89
Reticulum, 48
Ringwomb, 109-110
Romanov, breed, 25,28,104
Romeldale, breed, 25.28
Romney, breed, 25,28
Roughage, 57,91,92,96
Roundworms, 64-65
Rumen, 48-49,54,56,68,71,91
Ruminant, 41,49,52

S
Saddle blankets, 134
Salmonelloisis, 85-86
Salt, 36,57,58,72,91,95,96,104-105,121-122
  Candle, 141
  Tanning 137-139
Sanitation, importance of, 60,63,66,86,134
Santa Cruz, breed, 28
Scales, 37
Scottish Blackface, breed, 25-26,28
Scours, 
  Cause of, 63-65
  Electrolytes, 94-95
  Lambs, affected, 61,94
  Signs of, 12
  Yellow, 94
Scrapie, 75
Scrotum,
   Care of, 12,100
   Castration, during, 125
   Circumference size, 10
   short, 125 
Secondary cuts, 84
Selenium,
  Deficiency, 89,96
  Injections, 91,105
  Lambs, in, 90,93
  Prolapse, 90
  Salt, in, 57
  Soil test, 91
Senses, 16,17
Septicemia, 93
Shearing, 107,126
  Handcrafters, 139
  How to, 127-129
  Nicks in, 136
  Pregnancy, 39,98,107
  Preparation before, 127
  Sheep chairs, 36, 38
  Time for, 17
Shearling, pelts, 136
Sheds, 34 
Buildings, 35    
    Lambing, 35 – 36
    Handling facilities, 36
sheep coats, see adoption coats
Sheep dogs, see dogs
Sheep ticks, (Keds), 11.68-69,103
   Pelts, effect on, 136
Shetland, breed, 26,28,131
Shrinkage, 20,21,23,37
Shropshire, breed, 20,26,28
Sight, 17
  Dogs, 41
Skin, see also pelts
  Adoption coats, 122
  Castration/docking, 125
  Color, 19,21
  Defects, 68
  Defense system, 62-64
  Eyes, under, 11,92
  Folds, 13,51      
  Foot rot, 77
  Heat, during, 53
  Heat surge in lambs, 123
  Injections, 72,78,79-83
  Lambs, 115,117,123
  Mites, affect on, 71
  Pizzle rot, in, 84
  Scavenger attack detection, 43,44
  Valuable, 23
  Vulva, 110
Skirting, 129
Smooth wire electric fences, see fences
Snares, 108,110-111
Soaps, 23, 139-141
Social structure, 18
Solid mouth, 10
Soremouth, 72
Sorting pens, 36-37
Southdown, breed, 25,28
Southern Cheviot breed/Border Cheviot, 26,28
Spider syndrome, 7,75
Spinning, 20-26, 107,129-134,137
Spinning count, 130
Spreaders, 10
St. Croix, breed, 26,28
Starvation, 174
Steel cable (soft) fences,34
Sterilization, 125
Stiff lambs, 96
Stillbirths, milking after, 50
Stomachs, 48,55
Stomach stones, (Urinary Calculi), 95 
Stomach tube feeding, 108,118,119
Stomach tube, venting gas, 71
Stress, abnormal behavior, 15-17
  Causes, 8,60,70,88,92,120
  Docking, castration during, 124
  Heat, during, 18
  Immune system, effect on, 63
  Pregnancy/lactation 85
  Prone, 17
  Transporting, 8
  Weight loss. 37
Subcutaneous hemorrhage, 43
Subcutaneous injection, 79-80, see injections
Suffolk breed, 26,28,75
Supplements, 30,47,51-6,59,96
  Bottle, 116
  Cattle supplement problems, 52,80
  Caution, mad cow disease, 52
  Flushing, in 103-4
  Minerals, 104
  Pregnancy, 105-6
  Recipe, 56
  Selenium, 96-97
Sustainable system of agriculture, 13


T
Tagging, 104,116-117
Tallow, defined, 140
  Candle making, 23,141-2
  Soap making, 23, 139-140
Tame pasture 28-29
Tanning, 137
  Baking Soda-Kerosene, 139
  Salt Acid, 138-9
Tapeworms, 65-66,92
Targhee, breed, 24,25-28
Taste, sense of, 17,95
  Meat, 25,135
Teeth, 9
   Age and price, 9
   Broken mouth, 10
   Gummers, 10
   Solid mouth, 10
   Spreaders, 10
Temperature, body, 13,62
   Breeding, 97
   Infertility, cause of, 100
   Illness, 62,73,87-88,93,117
   Injections, of, 79,81
   Medications, of 79,138
   Pelts, of, 138
Temporary fences, 33-34
Tending dogs, 40
Tetanus, cause of, 82,93
   Docking and castration, 95,124
   Vaccination, 92,95
       Lambs, in 124
Texel, breed, 27,28
Thiamine, 93
Ticks, 68-69
Tilt tables, 38
Touch, sense of, 17
Toxemia, 37,78,82,87-89,106-107
  Entrotoxemia, 54,82-3,92,96,106,114,124
  Pregnancy, 88-89
Toxins, 63,82
  Antitoxins, 82
Toxoids, 82
Toxoplsmosis, 85,86
Tube-feeding, 108,118-119
Tunis, breed, 19,27,28
Turning cradle, 38
Twins, see also multiple births, 19,20-21,25,27,55,99
   Birthing of, 113
   Breeding, 104,107            
   Finnsheep, 116
   Insufficient milk, 116,123
   Ketone test, 106
   Rejection of, 121
   Supplemental feeding, 116

U
Udder,11,51
  Infection, 64,80,86-87
  Sensitive, 115,119-120
  Swollen, 114,119
Ulcerative dermatosis, 84
Umbilical cord, 93,109
   Birthing, after, 112,114
   Treatment of, 110   
Urinary calculi, 95
Urine,  35
   Infection95
   Samples. 62

V
Vaccination, 60,82-83,103
Inactivated, 79
Lambing season, before, 50
Live, 79
   Vaccines for, 
    Abortion prevention, 85
    Blackleg, for, 73
    Boils, for 73-74
    Clostridium, 103
    Epididymitis, 83-84
    Enterotoxemia, 92-93
    Malignant edema, 74  
    Navel ill, 93
    Pneumonia, 124
    Soremouth, 72
    Tetanus, 95,124
  Weather, 79
Vaginal prolapse, 89-90
Vegetables, as feed, 56,56
Venereal disease, 84
Vibriosis, 85-86,103
Viruses, 63-64
  Antibiotics, and 81-82
  Diseases caused by, some of, 72-73,93-94,103
Vision, 17
Vitamins, 52,56,67,114,130
  A, 54-56,95-96
  B, 54,91
  E, 56,90,93,96,140
   
W
Warming boxes, 117
Water,52-53,57,100
  Cold water treatment, 118
  Contamination, 66,86
  Hard water, 96
  Importance of, 38,57,60
  Lambing, 35,105  
  Pans, 38
  Shedding coats, 26,129 
  Thawing lambs, 114
  Warm water, 95,115-118,121-122
  Wary, sheep of, 15
  Water pans, 38
Water bag, 108,110,121
Water belly, 95
Weakness, cause of, 54, 58-59,62,64,73,89
   Fleece, in 130
Weaning, time of, 14,49,139
   Creep feeding, 13,55
   Rams, 101
   Separation from ewe, 37
Weight,
   Estimate, how to, 37    
   Feed chart, 59
   Fleece, 13,19,21,24
   Gain, 97,103,105
   Illness, 74,75
   Lambs, 114,123
      Low birth, 78
   Loss of, 68-69
   Meat, Hampshire, 22
   Meat cuts, chart, 134
   Overweight rams, 99
   Pregnancy feed chart, 97
   Scales, 37
   Sterilization, effect, 125
Wheat, 55-56,95,96,105
White blood cells, 63,84
White muscle, 56,90,96,105
Wiltshire horn, 27,28
Wolves, 44,47
Wooden rail fences, see fencing
Wool, see also shearing
  Black, 20,22,23,25,26,106
  Bright, 130
  Carding, 132,133
  Carpet, 23
  Colored, 19,20,69,129,130,131
  Commercial buyers, 130,133
  Fiber, 26,106,130,133
  Grease, 13,32,137
  Long, 19,20,21,23,25,26
  Marketing, 129
  Washing and drying,132,133,137
Wool break, 65
Wool chewing, 68
Wormers, 12,62,66,67,68
Wounds, 70,74,95
Woven wire fence, see fencing

Y
Yearling, 10,20,64,100
Yeast, 48,63-64,86
Yoking, 102

Z
Zakat,
   Authentic hadith, 168
             
    

An authentic saying of Prophet Muhammad, praise and peace be upon him, relating to the importance of and penalty for not paying the obligatory charity on livestock.
“Whosoever has gold or silver and does not pay the obligatory charity which is due on it must know that on the Day of Judgement his gold and silver will be melted into slabs which will then be heated in the Fire of Hell then his side, forehead and back will be branded with them. When the slabs become cool they will be re-heated again and the branding will continue throughout a day the length of which will be equal to fifty thousand years until the people will have been judged, then he will be shown his way either to Paradise or to the Fire.

A Companion asked, ‘O Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, what about camels?’ He answered, ‘In the same way, the owner of camels who does not pay what is due in respect of them and what is due includes their milk on the day they are taken to water, they will be thrown on his face in a wide level plain on the Day of Judgement to be trampled upon by the camels. These camels will be strong and fat, not one of them, even the calf of a camel will be missing. They will trample him under their feet and tear him apart with their teeth. When the last of them has passed over him the first of them will begin the process over again throughout a day the length of which will be equal to fifty thousand years until all men have been judged and he will be shown his way to either Paradise or to the Fire.’

Then he was asked, 'O Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, what about cows and goats?' He answered, 'The same will apply to one who owns cows and goats and does not pay his respective obligatory charity due on them. On the Day of Judgement he will be thrown on his face in a wide level plain with none of the animals missing and none will be without horns. They will gore him with their horns and trample him under their hooves and when one side has finished the other side will begin throughout a day, the length of which will be equal to fifty thousand years until all men have been judged and he will be shown his way to either Paradise or to the Fire.’

Then he was asked, ‘O Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, what about horses?’ He answered, ‘Horses will be divided into three groups: those that are a burden for their owner, those that are a shield for him and those that make their owner worthy of reward. As for those who are a burden for their owner, they are the ones bred for show or for pride, or as a cause of injury to Muslims. They will be a cause of punishment for their owner. The ones that are a shield for their owner are those that were bred by him for the Cause of Allah and he does not forget that which is due to Allah in respect of their backs and their necks. They are his shield. These horses make their owner worthy of reward and are the ones raised in meadows and gardens for use in the Cause of Allah by Muslims. Whatever they eat from meadows and gardens is recorded as good deeds for their owner, so much so that even their droppings and urine count as an equal number of good deeds for him. Every rope that is used (when they are being broken in), their jumping and every mound from which they jump and every hoof mark they make counts as an equal number of good deeds for him. When their owner leads them to a stream and they drink from it - whether their owner intended them to do so or not - every mouthful they drink counts as a good deed for him.’

The Companions asked, ‘O Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, what about donkeys?’ He answered, ‘No specific orders have been sent down to me with regard to donkeys but this verse is comprehensive: 'Whosoever has done an atom's weight of good shall see it, and whosoever has done an atom's weight of evil shall see it also.'" 99:7-8 Koran

Ref. 1237. Bukhari and Muslim with a chain up to Abu Hurairah who related that the Messenger of Allah, praise and peace be upon him, said this.

There are many other Prophetic sayings that endorse the necessity to pay the obligatory charity.